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STANDARD AMERICAN PLUMBING 

HOT AIR AND HOT WATER HEATING 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



Among the subjects this valuable book treats of are Sani- 
tary Plumbing, covering details regarding the installation 
of hot and cold water drainage systems. 



MODERN HOT WATER, HOT AIR AND 
STEAM HEATING 

Heating systems, steam boilers, piping system, radiators, 
hot water heating, estimating, piping and fittings. 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 
WORKING DRAWINGS. 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



By CLOW and DONALDSON 



Special Exclusive Edition 

Printed by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

EXPRESSLY FOR 

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

1920 






Copyright 1920, 1918, 1914 and 1911 

by 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 





^ 






V 




OCT 2J 1920 




v. 


©GU597938 







HOUSE DRAINAGE. 

The fact that plumbing during the past ten 
years has reached a most remarkable stage of de- 
velopment in the construction of improved sys- 
tems of sewerage, house drains, ventilation and 
fixtures, is due to several causes. 

In the first place, the manufacturers of plumbing 
supplies in their pursuit of commercial supremacy 
have employed a number of sanitary engineers, 
who by experimenting and investigation, have 
perfected systems and fixtures which are a pre- 
ventative against the dangers of sewer gas and 
their subsequent results, such as typhoid, scarlet 
fever, dysentery, etc., coming as they frequently 
do from no apparent cause, as far as modern 
science will permit. 

Secondly, good and safe plumbing has ceased 
to be a luxury. Its protection against the above 
mentioned diseases, and its safeguard to good 
health, have made it ai necessity. Heretofore 
many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- 
ciating the importance of correct drainage and 
plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- 
tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark 
of some builder is often heard, to the effect that 
the balance of the house has cost so much more 

7 



8 HOUSE DEAINAGE 

than was originally intended, that no more money 
than is absolutely necessary can be expended for 
the plumbing. The knowledge and skill which is 
employed for the construction of the rest of the 
house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, 
ventilation, bath and toilet rooms, and their fit- 
tings. 

Modern knowledge has taken the place of igno- 
rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, 
which were thought good enough ten years ago, 
are to-day branded as old, on account of their not 
being a proper safeguard against disease. Every 
builder should weigh these facts well, and make 
himself familiar with the dangers arising from 
putting in a poor system, as even the smallest 
leak will cause sickness and often death. 

The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing 
line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which 
carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. 
The accumulated waste from food, clothing and 
bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed 
promptly and properly, or disease will result. 
The sewer which conveys the matter from the 
dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, 
the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should 
be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and 
out with hot asphaltum, and should run through 
the foundation wall, and the connection should be 
made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- 
side of the building wall. The connection be- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



tween the iron and vitrified soil pipe should be 
carefully made at X and cemented tight with a 
good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to 
incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, 
which will prevent the breaking of the joint at 
this point. 

In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown 
which is commonly used by a great many plumb- 



fefetefc3fi»*rSW^»»«r»4 




Fig. 1. 

ers, but which has many disadvantages. The 
trap at A, which is placed in the connecting 
sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gasesi from 
the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account 
of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the 
fresh-air inlet at B ventilates the house system of 
drain pipes. This vent is often placed between 
the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. 
Hie vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 



10 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

broken, which will permit of dirt, stones, and 
sticks falling into the opening so left, and choke 
the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the 
bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- 
ing a vent in a position such as shown, is that 
grass and other vegetation is liable to grow up 
around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- 
ciency. When a main disconnecting trap must 
be located outside of the building and under- 
ground, there should be built a brick manhole 
around it for easy access. The manhole for this 
purpose, should be two feet and five inches in 
diameter at the base, and closed on the top with 
a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with 
an eighteen-inch diameter round cast-iron lid, 
which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone 
all around. 

The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a 
very excellent one for a residence. The fittings 
as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- 
quent] y reduce the cost to a minimum. In the 
ordinary residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently 
large enough to carry away all of the sewerage. 
A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the 
ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry 
away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies 
water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a 
fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- 
ercised to allow a large enough opening in the 
wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



11 




Fig. 2. 



12 HOUSE DEAINAGE 

dally over them, to allow for setting of the wall 
without touching the pipes. 

Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, not less than 
four inches in diameter, coated inside and out 
with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases 
for house drainage. 

At A is shown a double- vent opening running 
trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with 
a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an 
opening which gives free access to the drainage 
system on the sewer end is obtained. Care should 
be taken in making this joint, and a good grade 
of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- 
rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should 
then be run full at one pouring with soft molten 
lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt 
calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- 
tight joint. The trap-screw cover should be 
screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- 
ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be 
hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly 
be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, 
and any defective work at this joint will allow 
the gas to escape into the basement. The vent 
opening at B is to be treated in the same man- 
ner, giving an opening which permits easy access 
to the trap. 

The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and the extension E, which is run 
to the surface in this particular instance, is run 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 13 

close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked 
on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- 
ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting 
into same and retarding a thorough circulation. 
In order to have this drainage system properly 
vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same 
size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical 
or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close 
to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, 
it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in 
the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- 
lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in 
placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances 
of having it knocked off and broken will be as 
small as possible. 

The extension piece in all cases should be long 
enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap 
being, at least, eight inches above the ground. 
In the drawing the sewer or drain pipe is shown 
above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or 
supports should be provided at an interval of five 
feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent 
the same from sagging and probably breaking 
the joints. When placed underground the top of 
openings B and C should be on a level with the 
flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, 
the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, 
with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist 
clamp or swivel joint, which will permit the 



14 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

hanger being shortened or lengthened after the 
pipe has been hung. 

Connection to Main Sewer. The method of 
making this connection is generally regulated by 
local conditions, and the rules and regulations 
established by ordinance of the town or city in 
which the work is to be done. The connection of 
the house sewer to the main or street sewer should, 
if possible, always be made with a Y, or if there 
is no Y connection on the main available, then the 
house sewer should be laid in such a manner that 
it will strike the main sewer at an angle to the 
direction of flow of sewage in the main sewer. 
This will greatly facilitate the flow of sewage from 
house sewer into main sewer. The house sewer 
pipe should have an upward incline of ^ inch per 
foot as it extends from the street main toward the 
building, and it should terminate at a point not 
less than 5 feet from the outside of the foundation 
walls, where connection is to be made with the 
cast iron soil pipe extending into the building. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 15 

Size of House Sewers. The size of the sewei 
leading from the building to the street main is 
governed by the quantity of sewage to be disposed 
of. In large installations it often becomes neces- 
sary to use more than one. Care should be taken, 
however, not to install too large a sewer, nor to 
give the same too much pitch or incline toward 
the street. There are two reasons for this: (1) 
If the sewer is too large it will not be flushed as 
it should be, since the water passing through it 
will reach only part way up its sides, thus allow- 
ing the floating matter to adhere to the sides, 
the result of which will sooner or later be an 
accumulation that will cause a stoppage of flow. 

(2) If the sewer has too much pitch the water 
will rush through it so rapidly that the solid mat- 
ter will be left behind and very likely be de- 
posited on the bottom and sides of the pipe, thus 
forming an obstruction to the discharge of matter 
which follows. 

The basic principle controlling the successful 
disposal of sewage through pipes is flotation; 
that is, the velocity of flow of the water should be 
such that the solid matter will be floated along 
with the water. It has been found by experiment, 
and also by practice, that an average velocity of 
276 feet per minute will carry all matter from the 
sewer. In estimating the required size of sewer 
from house to street main a good rule to follow 
is to have the sewer pipe one size larger than the 
soil pipe. 



16 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Table 1 will facilitate calculations for fall re- 
quired of various sized sewers in order to give the 
velocity of flow required to remove all matter from 
the pipes. 



Size of Sewer 


Fall, or Pitch Required 


Velocity of 


Flow 


2 inch 


1 foot 


in 20 feet 


276 feet 


per 


minute 


3 " 


1 " 


" 30 " 


276 *' 


" 




' 


4 " 


1 " 


" 40 " 


276 u 


" 




1 


5 " 


1 " 


" 50 " 


276 " 


'* 




' 


6 " 


1 " 


" 60 " 


276 " 


4* 




* 


7 " 


1 " 


" 70 " 


276 " 


** 




* 


8 " 


1 " 


" 80 " 


276 " 


M 




* 


9 " 


1 " 


•« 90 " 


276 " 


" 




* 


10 " 


1 ** 


"100 " 


276 " 







TABLE 1. 

FALL PER FOOT FOR VARIOUS SIZED SEWERS AND HORI- 
ZONTAL SOIL PIPES. 

Rain Leaders. All down spouts, or rain water 
pipes leading to, and connected with the house 
sewer should be equipped with traps at their base. 
The required size for house drains for carrying 
away rain water is given in Table 2, the values 
given therein being based upon an average rain- 
fall. 



Size of Pipe 



inch 



One-fourth Inch Fall 
Per Foot 



3,700 sq. ft. of roof area 

5,000 ' " 

6,900 " * 

11,600 " 

11.600 " " " " 



One-half Inch Fall 
Per Foot 



5,500 sq. ft. of roof area 
7,500 " 

10,000 ' " 

15,600 ' " 

17,400 " " " " 



TABLE 2. 
SIZES OF HOUSE DRAINS TO CARRY RAIN WATER. 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



17 



Capacity 


of Drain 


Pipe Under 


Different Amounts 






of Fall. 








Gallons per Minute. 




Size of Pipe. 


1-2 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


6 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


9 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


21 


30 


42 


52 


4 " 


36 


52 


76 


92 


6 " 


84 


120 


169 


206 


9 " 


232 


330 


470 


570 


12 " 


470 


680 


960 


1160 


15 " 


830 


1180 


1680 


2040 


18 " 


1300 


1850 


2630 


3200 


20 " 


1760 


2450 


3450 


4180 


Size of Pipe. 


12 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


18 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


24 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


36 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


60 


74 


85 


104 


4 " 


108 


132 


148 


184 


6 " 


240 


294 


338 


414 


9 " 


660 


810 


930 


1140 


12 " 


1360 


1670 


. 1920 


2350 


15 " 


2370 


2920 


3340 


4100 


18 " 


3740 


4600 


5270 


6470 


20 " 


4860 


5980 


6850 


8410 



TABLE 3 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS. 

Floor drains, when used in cellar or basement 
should be connected to the leader side of a rain 
leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitary 
engineers go so far as to say that floor drains 
should never be used, their objection to them be- 
ing that the floor is not washed often enough to 
furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal 
at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their 
argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- 
ment are very convenient, and should be part of 
a well- installed sanitary sewer system. 

In case of a seepage of water through the foun- 
dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to 
be provided with some means to carry the water 
away quickly, without having to resort to the 
laborious practice of pumping. 

The evils of a floor drain are not so much due 
to their inefficiency, as they are to the care taken 
of them. The cemented floor basement of the 
modern home today is just as important to be 
kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough 
housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and 
realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- 
tary standpoint. 

The old method of installing a floor drain or 

18 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 



19 



floor outlet which consisted of placing a running 
trap in the line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, 
and running a piece of pipe to the floor level and 
simply closing the opening with a bar strainer 
grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented 
into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become 
loosened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon 
clog up the trap and render it useless. 




Fig. 3. 



As before said, the great objection to a base- 
ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that 
there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- 
ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the 
trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap 
is not always filled with water and to argue 
against its installation on that point is wrong. 

Floor drains should never be used without a 
back-water valve, which will prevent sfwwr water 
from backing up into the basement A uumW 



20 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 

of different styles of floor drams are shown, which 
are built on the proper lines. The one shown in 
Fig. 3 is a combination floor drain and back-water 
gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain 
flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve 
combination has much to be commended. It has 
a hinged strainer, through which seeping and 
floor waste water finds a direct outlet to the trap 
and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which 
is always desirable, and is always provided with 
a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which 
will not rust and which will close and hold tight 
against a back flow from the sewer. It also has 
a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe 
can be attached, and by means of a valve being 
placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the 
drain trap can be throroughly flushed and cleansed 
by simply opening the valve for a few minutes 
at a time. 

Another method oftentimes used to provide for 
a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil 
pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, 
and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- 
rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which 
is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as 
shown in Fig. 4. An outlet of this character is 
only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- 
ing and removing the cover until its need is past. 

In Fig. 5 is shown an extra heavy cesspool 
suitable for barns, carriage room and places of 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 




Fig. 4 




Fig. 5 . 



22 CELLAR OE BASEMENT DRAINS 

like nature. The top is sixteen inches square, 
the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- 
let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- 
inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating 
is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and 
carriages passing over it. The second grating or 
strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- 
stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be 
lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any 
time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of 
its good features, the bell or hood not only serves 
to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables 
is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain 
of any description which might fall through the 
second strainer from getting into the sewer. 

Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of 
the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. 

Fig. 6 is a combination floor strainer and back- 
water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe 
which extends down to the trap placed in the 
sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding 
of the basement from backing up of water, by be- 
ing floated to seat above. 

In Fig. 7 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- 
signed especially for hospital operating rooms 
and other places where it is desirable not only to 
cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove 
all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- 
tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is 
enamelled inside. This gives it an impervious 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 23 




Fig. 1. 



24 CELLAR OE BASEMENT DRAINS 

and smooth surface and prevents the trap from 
becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided 
with heavy brass cast flushing rim and has a brass 
removable strainer. 

In the sectional view is shown the method by 
which the water supply is connected to both the 
rim and trap, by means of which not only every 
portion of the body may be cleansed, but also all 
sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. 

The trap is built especially to maintain a deep 
seal and is three inches in diameter. 



ROUGHING IN 25 

The roughing in of a system of plumbing re- 
quires the most careful measurements possible on 
the part of the plumber, owing to the fact that 
when this portion of the job is completed, the soil 
pipe is, or should be, in its proper location, the soil 
stack connected with it and extending through the 
roof of the building; also all branch soil pipes 
leading from the main stack to their proper loca- 
tions, under, or near the various fixtures, so that 
when the floors are laid no changes will be re- 
quired, for be it remembered that all roughing in 
must be completed before the floors of the build- 
ing are put down. Fig. 8 shows a plan of the 
roughing in work to be done in the basement. 

The soil pipe is shown, with its various 
branches, each having a certain function to per- 
form, and it is easily seen that good judgment, 
and accurate measurements are necessary in order 
to bring each branch to its correct location. 

Fig. 9 is a vertical section of a two-story and 
basement building, showing all parts of the plumb- 
ing system, including the main soil stack con- 
nected at its bottom end with the house drain pipe, 
while its top extends through the roof. A careful 
study of Figs. 8 and 9 will show that good work 
is required on the part of the plumber to locate 
each tee, and Y in its proper place. 



26 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



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«>*Y<^ 



Fig. 8 



ROUGHING IN 27 

In addition to the branch soil pipes which are 
to receive the discharge from the closets, there 
are vent pipes for the purpose of relieving the air 
pressure on the system, thus preventing siphon- 
age, and maintaining a circulation of air through- 
out the entire system at all times. These pipes 
are clearly shown in Fig. 9. Then there are the 
water pipes which are to supply water to the 
various fixtures ; and drain pipes for receiving the 
discharge from the different fixtures and passing 
the same on into the main soil stack. It is a good 
plan for the plumber to make a correct memoran- 
dum of all roughing in measurements, and pre- 
serve it for future reference. 

Cutting Soil Pipe. As before stated, the soil 
pipe should be extra heavy cast-iron pipe. When 
the proper measurements have been taken, and 
memoranda made of the same, it will be next in 
order to cut the soil pipe into lengths to corre- 
spond with the measurements. 

The best tools to use for this purpose are a 
diamond point cold chisel, and a machinist's ham- 
mer. Some workmen use a three wheel cutter for 
cutting this pipe, but there is always a liability of 
cracking the pipe with this tool, owing to the fact 
that the pipe is not of a uniform thickness. Hav- 
ing determined by measurement the point where 
the cut is to be made, mark it with a piece of chalk 
around the circumference of the pipe, then lay the 
pipe on the floor, placing a narrow piece of wood 
directly under the marked place, and proceed with 
the chisel and hammer. 



28 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 






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Fig. 9 



ROUGHING IN 29 

Making Soil Pipe Joints. Joints that will not 
leak should be the motto of every good plumber, 
and this should apply, not only to joints that are 
visible, but also to those joints in the soil pipe 
which are in many cases entirely hidden from 
view, owing to their location. Special care should 
be exercised in making the joint which unites the 
cast-iron soil pipe with the vitrified sewer pipe 
just outside the walls of the building. There are 
several patented devices that may be used for 
making this joint, or it may be made by the same 
method as are the joints in the main sewer, that 
is by the use of cement. 

The joints in the soil pipe proper, within the 
walls of the building should be made with oakum 
and melted lead, by first caulking the oakum 
tightly in the space provided for the joint, leaving 
a space of 1 inch to l 1 /^ inches in which to pour 
the lead, which should also be caulked after it has 
cooled. In caulking the lead due care should be 
exercised not to use a heavy hammer, since great 
pressure is brought to bear upon the hub, and 
there is danger of cracking it. In the making of 
a joint in a horizontal soil pipe greater skill is 
required than on a vertical pipe, and it becomes 
necessary to use an asbestos joint runner in pour- 
ing the lead. 



30 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Putty, or soft clay are sometimes used for hold- 
ing the lead, but not as good results are obtained 
as with the asbestos, which can be clamped around 
the pipe tightly, leaving an opening at the top for 
pouring in the lead. Always pour the joint full 
at one pouring. If by accident, or mistake the 
joint is not poured full, at the first pouring, it 
becomes necessary to pick out the lead, and repour 
it. The lead used in making these joints should 
be entirely free from solder, or other metals, and 
it should always be hot when poured. It is good 
practice to place some pulverized resin in the 
space before pouring the lead. This will prevent 
any trouble from possible dampness. Table 4 
gives the weight of lead and oakum required for 
soil pipe joints in various sized pipes. 



Size of Pipe 


Lead per Joint 


Oakum per Joint 


2 inch 

3 M 

4 " 

5 " 

6 M 


1 K pounds 

»a :: 

4% 


3 ounces 

6 

7 

8 

9 



TABLE 4. 
LEAD AND OAKUM REQUIRED FOR SOIL PIPE JOINTS. 



Fig. 10 shows the plumbing for a two tenement 
house, also method of using test plugs. 

Fig. 11 shows the plumbing for a three tenement 
building. 

Fig. 12 shows a method of running a long line of 
soil pipe on the cellar wall. 



ROUGHING IN 



31 




Fig. 10 



32 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 







VvNn c«.»vo*sy 



Fig. U 



ROUGHING IN 



33 




Fl* II 



34 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Roof Construction. Eeference to Figures 10 
and 11 will show that the diameters of the main 
soil stacks are increased just under the roof, by 
means of an increaser, and the enlarged diameter 
continues through the roof. This is for the pur- 
pose of preventing the stack from becoming 
clogged with hoar frost in cold weather. 

Figures 13 and 14 show several different meth- 
ods of roof connections ; called by plumbers, l ' roof 
flashings." These are for the purpose of prevent- 
ing rain water from following down the outside of 
the pipe below the roof. Soil pipes should not be 
less than four inches in diameter, and both soil, 
and vent pipes should extend at least eight inches 
above the roof, and if, at this height the opening 
would be near the doors or windows of an adjoin- 
ing building, these pipes should be extended so as 
to bring the opening to a point not less than fif- 
teen feet from such doors or windows ; and these 
openings should be not less than six feet from any 
ventilator, or chimney opening of the building 
they are installed in, or any adjoining building. 
Otherwise they are liable to be declared a nui- 
sance. The increasers for enlarged diameter of 
these pipes should extend at least one foot below 
the roof, and the openings of these pipes must 
have no caps or cowles affixed to, or over their 
tops. 

In many cities the connection of soil, or vent 
pipes with a chimney flue is prohibited. 



ROUGHING IN 



35 



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Fi£. 13 



36 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 










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Ffp. 14 



ROUGHING IN 37 

Pipe Supports. The foot of every vertical 
soil, rain, or waste pipe should be permanently 
supported by a solid brick, stone or concrete pier 
properly constructed, by using cement mortar, or 
cement concrete, or if such material is not avail- 
able, some other foundation equally as solid 
should be used. The weight of the vertical soil 
stack in most buildings is usually very heavy, and 
when not properly supported, there is danger of 
the pipe settling, the consequence of which would 
be the opening up of more or less of the joints, 
thereby causing leakage. In addition to supports 
at the bottom, these pipes should also be provided 
with floor rests at intervals of every second floor 
through which they pass. Soil pipes under the 
floor of the basement should be properly laid, rela- 
tive to grade, and should also be provided with 
adequate supports that will not settle. In case 
these pipes are above the basement floor they 
should be supported on solid piers, or they may 
be suspended from above as shown in Fig. 12. 
Where horizontal pipes are to be supported by 
suspension, strap iron stirrups, and not hooks are 
to be used. 

Fresh Air Inlets. Fig. 15 shows two methods 
for admitting fresh air to the basement soil pipe. 
Fig. 16 shows the roughing in plan for the base- 
ment of a store or office building; while Figures 
17, 18 and 19 show the roughing in and plumbing 
of a Modern Engine House for the use of the Fire 
Department. 



38 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 15 



ROUGHING IN 



39 







^ QfTVCEb 



Fig. 16 



40 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 17 



ROUGHING IN 



41 



conductions 



STlWJL. 






o? 






0* Vt*>A- ,VCV\H bVNQC fcfc- 
* \ t^P T>o** £***> 







*?\Att or S\K^ 







^^^^ . 



Fig. 18 



42 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 19 



ROUGHING IN 43 

Figure 20 shows the plumbing for a modern 
stable, and is self-explanatory. Figures 21 to 28 
show enlarged views of the connections to the 
various fixtures required in the plumbing of a 
two-story and basement residence as shown in 
Fig. 9. These illustrations are self-explanatory, 
and need no further comment. It will be noticed 
that the work starts in the basement on the con- 
nections for the wash trays, and servant's water- 
closet, Fig. 21. Next come the fixtures on the first 
floor, consisting of the refrigerator, kitchen sink, 
and lavatory. These are shown in Figs. 22, 23, 
and 24. The waste, or drip pipe from the refrig^ 
erator, Fig. 24, should not be directly connected 
with any soil pipe, rain water lead, or any other 
waste pipe; but should discharge into an open, 
water supplied sink, or over a deep sealed trap, 
as shown in Fig. 24. It should be as short as 
possible, and should be disconnected from the re- 
frigerator, or ice box by at least four inches. In 
buildings where refrigerators, or ice boxes are 
located on two or more floors, the waste and vent 
pipe should be continuous, and should run through 
the roof, care being taken also, that it does not 
open within six feet of an open soil, or vent pipe. 
The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for two 
floors, or less should be at least one and one-half 
inches; two inches for three floors and over, and 
two and one-half inches for five floors and over. 



44 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 20 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



45 




*Oft 



CCmWt.CT\Ov\S 



Fig. 21 



46 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



T 






^t u J * 



* 






V/tOEO 



5^T ^ ( / 



IS?*. 






r ^kss 1 — L 






J 






,: w 



[ x ^ ,J S 1R^* 







Fig. 22 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



47 






£_ 









1 



\ 

Of G KV-V 






•^ V.K\)KTQRY 







Piff. 23 



48 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 24 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



49 



m VIKTOR 










Fig. 25 



50 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 1 




Fig. 26 



FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 



51 




Fig. 27 



52 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




Fig. 28 



TRAPS. 

A. trap is a device or fitting used to allow the 
free passage through it of liquids and solids, and 
still prevent the passage of air or gas in either 
direction. There are two kinds of traps used on 
plumbing fixtures known as syphon traps and 
anti-syphon traps. The simplest trap is the sy- 
phon trap — a horizontal pipe bent as shown in 




Fig. 29. 

Fig. 29. This forms a pocket which will retain 
enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. 
The dip or loop is called the -seal, and should 
never be less than one and one-half inches. This 
type of trap is what is known as a running-trap. 
This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- 
ble of withstanding a very low back pressure. 

53 



54 



TRAPS 



The trap most generally used is what is known 
as the S trap, as shown in Fig 30. "When this trap 
is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs 
up into the vertical pipe, and naturally will with- 
stand a greater pressure than the running-trap 
type— about twice as much. 




Fig. 30 . 



The trap shown in Fig 31 is what is known as 
a P trap, and in Fig 32 as three-quarter S trap, 
and has the same resisting power as the S trap. 

A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, 
self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger 



TEAPS 



55 



of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house 
from evaporation, as it would take a number of 
week's time, under ordinary conditions, to evapo- 
rate enough water to destroy the seal. 




Fig. 32 . 



56 



TEAPS 



A trap can be syphoned when connected to an 
unvented stack, and then only when the waste 
pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the 
dip, so as to form the long leg of the syphon as 
in Fig. 33. 




Pig 33. 



TRAPS 57 

When two fixtures are installed one above the 
other, with un vented traps and empty into one 
stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- 
tion. The water emptying into the stack at the 
higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the 
lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which 
sucks the water out of the trap at the lower point. 
To prevent this, what is known as back-venting 
is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the 
trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from 
back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both 
sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- 
nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent 
opening will be above the level of the water in 
the trap. 

In Fig. 34 two basins are shown connected to 
soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the 
air- vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into 
an increaser, which projects through the roof. 
This drawing is given to illustrate the proper 
back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, 
and when it is necessary to run separate stacks 
for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed 
in bedrooms, the main waste stack must be two 
inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- 
half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought 
iron. 

Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal 
cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- 
tions. Some water can be syphoned from the best 



58 



TRAPS 



of non-syphon traps made, but not enough to de 
stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning 




Fig. 34 



TRAPS 



59 



trap is known as a drum trap, which is four inches 
id diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water 
always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, 
even when subjected to the severest of tests. 

Fig. 35 shows a trap, which is the type general- 
ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided 




Fig. 



with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- 
poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber 
gasket. A trap of this kind would not be suitable 
for a lavatory, its principal fault being that owing 
to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, 
affording a lodging place for the depositing of 
sediment. 



60 



TRAPS 



The non-syphon trap to be used is one in which 
the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly 
scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is 
shown in Fig. 36. This trap depends upon an 
inner partition to effect this rotary movement, 
and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- 
en by syphonic action and is permitted by health 





Fig. 36 



Fig. 37 



and sanitary departments, where it is impossible 
to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. 

One of. the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as 
shown in Fig. 38. The rubber ball being of slight- 
ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the 
seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- 
ing through the trap. This ball prevents the seal 



TRAPS 



61 



of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and 
acts as a check against back flow of sewerage 
should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water 
is evaporated. 

Fig. 37 shows the old Bower trap. The water 
seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending 




Fig. 38 



down into the body below the outlet. The bot- 
tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- 
ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap 
and thoroughly cleaned. 



SOLDER. 

The composition and properties of solders are 
a matter of considerable interest to all metal 
workers, but the subject is of especial import- 
ance to plumbers, because on the quality and 
purity of solder depend in a large measure the 
reliability- and good appearance of their work. 
Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything 
so productive of bad work, waste of time, and 
consequent irritability and bad temper, as the 
trying to do good work with bad material, par- 
ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers' 
solder. Until recent years it was invariably the 
practice for plumbers to make their own solders, 
either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints 
and solders were melted down, and tin added in 
proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite 
unusual for plumbers to know anything about 
solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- 
nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who 
make solder-making a branch of their manu- 
facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if 
supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- 
erally be depended upon for purity and uniform 
quality. 

Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 

62 



SOLDER 63 

pans of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, 
of course, vary; according to the quality of the 
constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very 
much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- 
abundance of the tin will make good solder if 
this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there- 
fore, far the most economical in the long run to 
use tin of the very best quality. 

As the exact proportions, as they are gener- 
ally given, depend to s. very great extent upon 
the condition of the two metals, it follows that 
the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and 
lead does not necessarily make a composition 
that will serve the purpose that it is intended 
for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can 
detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness 
of such solders when required for the execution 
of good work. 

Although it is not absolutely necessary that a 
good solder-maker should be a plumber, it is 
important that he should have a considerable 
knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper 
condition. In the absence of a practical test, 
there are certain indications by which the solder 
may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The 
most common practice is to run out a strip of 
solder on a smooth level stone. As soon as the 
strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or 
the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- 
termined by the appearance of botfr surfaces. It 



64 SOLDER 

is important, before running the solder out on 
the stone, that it should be at such a heat as 
to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- 
ture just below red heat is the most suitable for 
this purpose, if the solder is not hot enough, it 
will have a dull white look, whether it is good 
or bad. 

If it is in good condition, it should have a 
clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should 
also form on the surface from an eighth to a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the 
larger the spots the finer is the solder, although 
some kinds of tin will not show large spots, 
however much is used. In such cases they 
should appear more numerous. 

If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and 
a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not 
as pure as it should be. It probably contains 
some mineral impurities, which can generally be 
removed by well heating the solder in the pot, 
and stirring into it a quantity of resin and 
tallow. These substances have but very little, 
if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder 
or the foreign matters it may contain, but the 
action that seems to take place is that they 
combine with the lighter mineral matters by 
what may be called adhesive attraction, and 
cause them to rise to the surface, where they can 
be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities 
ffeat get iato the solder, the specific gravities of 



SOLDER 65 

which are probably much lighter than the solder 
itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- 
til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- 
membered that although tin has a specific gravity 
of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary 
to well stir the solder while it is being poured 
into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise 
to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after 
it was once mixed, the lower portion would not 
be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the 
greater specific gravity of the one does not 
wholly displace the other. The same is true of 
certain impurities, which are not removed until 
they are washed out, as it were, by means of 
fluxes such as resin and tallow. 

The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is 
zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets 
into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of 
impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially 
underhand joints. 

When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a 
dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The 
tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not 
at all bright and clean. When solder of this 
kind is being used for wiping, the first thing 
noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the 
surface directly after it is skimmfed. It is im- 
possible to keep the surface clean for even a 
second. When it is poured on a joint, it sets 
almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 



66 SOLDER 

it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it 
with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off 
the joint. 

In the case of branch joints when an iron is 
used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks 
away like portions of wet sand. There are two 
or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, 
one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly 
set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- 
arated as much as possible. The whole is then 
placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- 
urated with hvdrochloric acid, commonlv called 
■ » 

muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and 
produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be 
washed out with clean water and the solder re- 
turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. 
This method cannot be recommended as a cer- 
tain cure, because of the difficulty there exists 
in dividing the particles to such an extent as to 
expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- 
tained in it, and considering the small amount 
of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder 
it is doubtful if the acid process is radical 
enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the 
zinc without repeated applications. 

Sulphur is the best thing to use for this pur- 
pose. 

AYhen a pot of solder has been found to be 
poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a 
red beat. Lump sulphur is broken up and gnui- 



SOLDER 67 

ulated, it is then screwed up tight in three or 
four thicknesses of paper, and u this form is 
thrown into the pot and held below the solder 
with a ladle. As the paper burns the sulphur 
rises through the solder, combines with the zinc, 
and floats on the surface. The solder is well 
stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with 
the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross 
which is formed by this process is then skimmed 
off with a ladle and thrown away as useless. 

In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- 
erally called a flux, the action that takes place 
is altogether different to that of resin and tal- 
low. It may safely be inferred by reference to 
the results of chemical combinations that the 
zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon 
as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, 
this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, 
a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, 
the specific gravity being considerably reduced, 
it readily rises to the surface of the solder, 
where it can be skimmed off with a ladle. 

The question naturally arises— why is it the 
sulphur does not combine with the lead to which 
it also has an. affinity, and thus form sulphide of 
lead? If lead is heated only just above its melt- 
ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with 
it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- 
lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera- 
ture is raised stvtral fifejjrees kigkfcr the sulphide 



68 SOLDER 

gives up the lead, and either floats to the top 
or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- 
ically termed sulphurous anhydride. There- 
fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a 
temperature just below redness, it is hot enough 
to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead 
and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the 
sulphur to give up the zinc, which fuses at a 
temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas 
lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- 
bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- 
renheit. The difference in the melting points 
is in all probability the principal cause of the 
sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead 
and tin comparatively unaffected. 

Another method of extracting the zinc from 
solder is to raise the temperature to a very 
bright red heat, if this is continued long enough 
the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous 
state. 

The latter is a very wasteful process because 
it cannot be done without a large proportion of 
the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers 
in the form of a powder on the surface, and is 
what is commonly known as putty powder. One 
of the most common means of spoiling solder is 
the last mentioned. 

The flowing of solder, especially that used 
with the copper-bit, depends to a large extent 
upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- 



SOLDER 69 

poses. For soldering lead only a very simple 
flux is necessary, namely, a little tallow and 
powdered resin. The same kind of flux is also 
very often used for tinning and soldering brass 
and copper, and there are many plumbers who 
use nothing else but a piece of common tallow 
candle, which seems to answer the purpose very 
well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- 
ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed 
spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is 
not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when 
zinc has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and 
preparations have been invented which have, to 
a very large extent, superseded the common 
fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- 
ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation 
on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- 
ing is done. 

It would be interesting to try and find out the 
reason why a combination of metals fuses at 
such a low temperature when compared with the 
fusing points of the component parts of the 
alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- 
posed of minute particles or molecules, and that 
there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid 
uniform mass. It is also acknowledged that 
the molecules of different substances always as- 
sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic 
matter is crystallized, as it is said to be when it 



70 SOLDER 

becomes solid by the action of cold, these par- 
ticles are attracted to each other by a force of 
more or less power according to the nature of 
the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. 

Now the force by which these aggregations of 
minute particles are held together is what is 
called cohesive attraction, and the power of this 
force to hold the particles together depends to 
a very great extent upon the particular shape 
which these extremely small particles assume, 
and the amount of surface which they present 
to each other. It is very easy to conceive that 
if a number of bodies have mutual attraction 
for each other, the larger the surface that comes 
in contact the more force is there exerted one 
with the other. If, for instance, the particles 
take the form of spheres like a number of mar- 
bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- 
tively very small indeed, the same would be the 
case if they were very irregular in form. But 
if each particle took the form of a cube, or 
some other regular body, the attraction would 
be greatly increased, as each of the particles 
approached and fitted into its proper place. It 
is not contended that the molecules are actually 
attracted into absolutely close contact, because, 
as a matter of fact, they are not. In every sub- 
stance, however hard and solid it might appear 
to be, there are certain interstices between the 
particles which are called pores, the capacities 



SOLDER 71 

of which vary according to peculiar conforma- 
tion of the particles, and the degree of affinity 
which one set of particles may have for others 
in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule 
the hardness or softness of any substance de- 
pends, according to the theory of cohesive at- 
traction, upon the close and compact nature of 
the molecules, and the large or small spaces or 
interstices between them, that is, so far as the 
action of heat is concerned. If it is required to 
make a hard substance soft and pliable, some 
power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- 
fluence upon the attractive force which causes 
the particles to cohere. Now the only powers 
that will effectually produce this result is heat, 
when heat is applied to nearly all metallic sub* 
stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the 
bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- 
sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is 
to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart 
from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming 
to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- 
tion. This repulsive action continues to increase 
as the temperature is raised, until the attractive 
force has to give way to the force of gravity. 

The result is the particles will no longer co- 
here in a mass, but fall away from each other 
and become in a state of fluid, and if they are 
not kept together in a vessel of some kind dp-- 
ing their high temperature they will run in any 



72 SOLDER 

direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- 
nary liquids. When a metal is in such a con- 
dition it is said to be melted or fused. There 
are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles 
of which are separated to a much greater ex- 
tent than is the case with fusion only. For if 
the heat is applied so that the temperature is 
raised above fusing point, evaporation takes 
place, and the molecules are driven off in the 
form of vapor. 

When two distinct metals are mixed together, 
such as tin and lead, the cohesive attraction is 
modified to a large extent, because the molecules 
of one have a comparatively small affinity for 
the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of 
affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity 
between the two, solders would be useless on 
lead, because tinning could not be effected if 
such were the case. But what seems certain is ? 
when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules 
are not held together by the same attractive force 
that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that 
is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of 
their difference of construction or conformation, 
have the same affinity for each other as they do 
when they are not intermixed with other parti- 
cles of a different nature. 

Consequently, when such combinations of met- 
als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- 
ticles mutually assist each other to separate, and 



SOLDER 73 

gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a 
much lower degree of temperature than is re- 
quired to obtain the same effect when the metals 
are melted separately. 

Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains 
its fluid and plastic state for a much longer 
time than lead or tin would before they are mix- 
ed, showing that the particles, probably for the 
same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they 
would in a separate state. If they did, joint- 
wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on 
the peculiar power that solder has to retain its 
heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the 
success of the most important parts of plumbing 
work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- 
erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen 
when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before 
the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that 
part which is near the hottest part of the fire 
begins to fuse> the molten metal forces its way 
up to the top, between the sides of the mass of 
solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- 
tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is 
covered with a melted layer which has forced its 
way there, showing that when the solder cooled 
it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- 
pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, 
when the lower part of the solder is melted first, 
the expansion that takes place forces it of neces- 
sity to the top, because there is not room for the 



74 SOLDER 

increased bulk in the space it was reduced to 
during the process of cooling. But if antimony, 
the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- 
heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just 
the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. 
The latter alloy is generally used for casting 
types for printing, the proportions of which are 
two of lead, one of antimony, and one of tin, 
although a more expansive alloy is made of 
nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- 
muth. Then with regard to the hardness of 
metals, it is not always that the hardest metals 
require the highest temperature to fuse them. 
Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet 
it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- 
renheit lower than lead. 



SOLDER 



75 





Decimal Parts of an 


Inch. 




j 1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


.03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 ! 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


,14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 1 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89063 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-32 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys 


of Tin 


, Lead, 


and Bismuth. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 


5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


8 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


892 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


8 




552 


3 


1 




367 











TABLE 6 



76 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. 


CD 

CO 

<D 
P 

M 

o 


•P . 

C U 

>->— 1 


p 

o 
u 

■*» 

CO 

o3 

2.34 






CO 

CO 

u 

pq 


u 

a> 

Pi 

P. 

O 

O 


p 


6 

a 

53 


•a 


l 

T7T 


2.50 


2.56 


2.75 


2.69 


2.87 


2.37 


2.25 


3.68 


% 


5.00 


4.69 


5.12 


5.50 


5.38 


5.75 


4.75 


4.50 


7.37 


3 
T"6" 


7.50 


7.03 


7.68 


8.25 


8.07 


8.62 


7.12 


6.75 


11.05 


% 


10.00 


9.38 


10.25 


11.00 


10.75 


11.50 


9.50 


9.00 


14.75 


5 
T~6" 


12.50 


11.72 


12.81 


13.75 


13.45 


14.37 


11.87 


11.25 


18.42 


/8 


15.00 


14.06 


15.36 


16.50 


16.14 


17.24 


14.24 


13.50 


22.10 


7 
TTT 


17.50 


16.41 


17.93 


19.25 


18.82 


20.12 


16.17 


15.75 


25.80 


% 


20.90 


18.75 


20.50 


22.00 


21.50 


23.00 


19.00 


18.00 


29.50 


9 
T~6" 


22.50 


21.10 


23.06 


24.75 


24.20 


25.87 


21.37 


20.25 


33.17 


% 


25.00 


23.44 


25.62 


27.50 


26.90 


28.74 


23.74 


22.50 


36.84 


1 1 

T~B~ 


27.50 


25.79 


28.18 


30.25 


29.58 


31.62 


26.12 


24.75 


40.54 


8/ 

/4 


30.00 


28.12 


30.72 


33.00 


32.28 


34.48 


28.48 


27.00 


44.20 


1 3 


32.50 


30.48 


33.28 


35.75 


34.95 


37.37 


30.87 


29.25 


47.92 


% 


35.00 


32.82 


35.86 


38.50 


37.64 


40.24 


32.34 


31.50 


51.60 


1 5 
T~B~ 


37.50 


35.16 


38.43 


41.25 


40.32 


43.12 


35.61 


33.75 


55.36 


1 


40.00 


37.50 


41.00 


44.00 


43.00 


46.00 


38.00 


36.00 


59.00 



Weight of Metals. To Find Weight in Pounds. 



Aluminium 

Brass 

Copper 

Cast-iron 

Wrought-Iron 

Lead ..- 

Mercury 

Nickel 

Tin 

Zinc 



.cubic inches 



X 0.094 

X0.31 

X0.32 

X0.26 

X0.28 

X0.41 

X0.49 

X 0.31 

X 0.26 

X0.26 



TABLE 6 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 

Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the 
ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by 
melting together pure lead and block tin in the 
proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of 
tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal 
parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used 
with the copper-bit— is made in the proportion 
of 2 pounds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- 
fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 
8 pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's 
copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound 
of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary 
within certain limits without apparent effort on 
the solder. 

Plumber's wiping solder, w T hen in a bar, 
should have a clean grey appearance, and not be 
dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be 
bright, and show several tin spots mottled over 
their surfaces. In use, the solder should work 
smooth, and not granular. The tin should not 
separate from the lead on the lower part of the 
joints. One test for the quality of solder is to 
melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone 
about the size of a dollar, and take note of the 
color and size and also the number and sizes 

77 



78 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

of the spots that appear, but the only reliable 
test is to make a joint and note the ease with 
which it can be worked. For making joints on 
lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips 
is generally used. This is the kind used also 
for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- 
der finer, others coarser than the usual average 
which is given above. 

The usual method of making solder is as fol- 
lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, 
to which enough broken coke is added to bank 
up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it 
is rather more than half full. Preference is 
given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings 
over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is 
generally purer than that used for pipe* Some 
pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, 
tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- 
able to put such material in the solder-pot. The 
effect would be to raise the melting point of 
the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be 
soldered it would in all probability partially 
melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do 
not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the 
nature of a mixture which partially separates 
when making a joint, some metals, especially 
zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. 
Joints made with such solder, which usually is 
called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDEB 79 

they usually leak when in water pipes, The ap- 
pearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead 
of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. 
From this it is clear that in making solder great 
care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. 
Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will 
unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above 
that proportion the metals are only mixed when 
melted, and on cooling partially separate. 

Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, 
about Yo pound of lump sulphur, broken into 
pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, 
and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- 
phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The 
resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form 
of a cake, more sulphur being added so long as 
sulphides continue to form. The bowl of the 
ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid 
on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. 
When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful 
of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead 
stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is 
again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the 
size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead 
being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the 
ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus 
exposed to the action of the cleaning material. 

Best block tin is now added in the required 
proportion, and after the molten mass has been 



80 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

well stirred a little of the mixture should be run 
on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears 
too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more 
sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow 
having been added, the solder is sikimmed and is 
then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. 
When plumber's solder is heated in an open 
pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with 
oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- 
tion takes place more readily. The tin melts 
at a lower temperature than lead, and so its 
specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
and so the solder becomes poorer when too 
highly heated, owing to» the tin's oxidation. If 
the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- 
dered charcoal, which will combine with the 
oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
but it is sometimes necessary to add a little 
more tin. 

Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. 
A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has 
always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on 
the top. This is principally oxide of tin and 
oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united 
with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- 
ides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 
per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for 
the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper 
layer of the solder— the part most exposed to 
the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 81 

becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin 
burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too 
coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is 
the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Great 
care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
out. It may get into the solder from a piece of 
zinc, having been put into the pot by mistake 
for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an 
alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the 
zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings 
find their way whilst brass is being prepared 
for tinning. If the filing is done at the same 
bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall 
on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get 
into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic 
or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 
clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in 
powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- 
molten condition, and then melting the whole, 
when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise 
to the surface, and can be taken off in the form 
of a cake, the solder being left in good condition 
for use. 



SOLDERING FLUXES. 

The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping 
solder is tallow, generally in the form of a 
candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so 
well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- 
ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different 
kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow 
candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often 
used in making eopper-bit joints, though for this 
latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use 
black rosin. Muriatic acid is employed as a flux 
for use when soldering, the acid — which is a 
powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- 
ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, 
such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, 
etc. 

After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- 
per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- 
per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, 
may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers 
tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- 
tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with 
which it may have combined, fall into the pot. 
Tn cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 

82 



SOLDERING FLUXES 83 

with more care than when cleaning lead, or the 
tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. 

The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers 
for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat 
the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or 
muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, 
and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. 
Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or 
a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, 
and then soldered joints made, they have been 
found to come apart after a few years, the pipe 
ends, when pulled from the solder, being found 
to be rusty. Although more difficult to accom- 
plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, 
and then plunged into molten solder, from the 
surface of which all dross has been skimmed, 
and afterwards soldered together, have been 
known to last a considerable time. When tin- 
ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
must not be overheated, or failure will result. 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. 

One objection that is often raised to wiped 
joints is that they are too expensive, and re- 
quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that 
they take up too much time, and when they are 
made they are said to be ugly, and have been 
described as a "ball of solder round a pipe." 
It seems very unfortunate that plumbers' work 
should be judged by its worst specimens, but, 
probably, this course of action is justified by 
the principle that the strength of the chain is 
limited to its weakest link. There is no doubt 
that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- 
erly wiped the above objections would be 
groundless, and that for good substantial work 
there is no other kind of joint that is more 
suitable for the purpose. 

In the process of making wiped joints no part 
is no important as the preparation. A joint 
may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- 
sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared 
and fitted, it will very often happen that the 
joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the 
solder is generally supposed to be the cause, 
but more often it is the fault of the imperfect 
preparation of the ends of the pipe. We will 

84 



PREPARING AVIPED JOINTS 85 

suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an 
inch service pipe. Fig. 40 is a sketch showing 
the way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. 
Very often one end barely enters the other, no 
care is taken to see that the ends fit properly 
together, and any space that may be left be- 
tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. 
As to shaving inside the socket end, this is 
thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for 
some think if the socket end is shaved inside, 
it will induce the solder to run through and 
partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it 
would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is 
just the thing that is most important, not only 
as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but 
on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- 
ness of the joint. 

The general idea is that if the two ends of a 
pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece 
of solder stuck round them, that is all that is 
required to make a joint. If the solder is not so 
fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of 
the leaky joints, and very often the joints are 
found broken right across the center, more es- 
pecially in the case of joint on hpt- water, service, 
and waste pipes. It has been remarked 
that the solder is generally blamed for all the 
failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or 
else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- 
wise, if the joint is made to> brasswork, it is that 



86 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- 
thing gets blamed except the right cause. 

It must not be supposed that joint-wiping can 
be taught by books. This can only be accom- 
plished in the workshop or on a plumbing job. 
But as practice is very often greatly assisted by 
precept, probably a few hints on the matter of 
joint-wiping will be helpful to many who have 
not the opportunities to gain a very large or 
varied experience. In preparing a joint similar 
to the one mentioned, after the two ends are 
carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is 
generally called the male end, should be first 
rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp 
quite half an inch back from the end. A fine 
rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are 
used by many plumbers are far too coarse to 
properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the 
very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say 
why, except it is that they are cheaper than the 
fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp 
be taken into account, the extra cost would not 
be considered. 

When preparing the ends of the pipe, great 
care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- 
ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time 
and trouble when they get into valves and other 
fittings, after the pipes are filled with water. 

As a rule, it is the back stroke of the rasp 
that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe- 



PKEPARING WIPED JOINTS 87 

daily when the pipe is being rasped horizontally, 
or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. 
If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they 
should either be pointing in a downward direc- 
tion, or else the rasp should not be allowed to 
touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some 
plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of 
a pipe when it is being rasped; this is a very 
good precaution to take, providing it is not for- 
gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot 
end has been rasped, it should be soiled about 
six inches long, but no farther towards the end 
than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes 
the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this 
is not a good plan, because, if it is soiled over 
the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always 
take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point 
which is most important; and as it is quite un- 
necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, 
the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many 
plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them 
with the same object in view, but this is not a 
good plan, because very often in rasping the 
ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the 
soiling, making it necessary to tquch up the soil- 
ing again. 

If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, 
after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard 
brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- 
face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 



88 PKEPARING WIPED JOINTS 

not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. 
The best soil is made from vegetable black and 
diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely 
ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- 
gredients depends to a large extent on their 
quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, 
but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- 
cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel 
off and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a 
properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- 
ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a good 
quality of work. Any makeshift does for a 
soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some 
use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much 
better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. 
Most plumbers should be able to make a soil 
pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a 
coppersmith would make one for a small sum. 
Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a 
good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract 
the effects of the grease that is nearly always 
found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the 
pipe is very greasy, it is still better to scour 
it well with a piece of card-wire before it is 
chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always 
necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece 
of card-wire in case of need. 

"When the end of the pipe has been properly 
soiled, it should be shaved the length required, 
tl-At is, about half an inch longer than half the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 89 

length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch 
for socketing into the other end. Grease, or 
"touch," as it is called by plumbers, should 
immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to 
prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe 
should now be rasped square and opened with a 
long tapered turnpin— a short stumpy turnpin 
is not a proper tool for this purpose, although 
many of this kind are used. After rasping the 
edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- 
allel with the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 
39. It is not at all necessary for the edge of 
the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore 
of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- 
pared, as shown at Figs. 40 and 41, it would 
be necessary to open the socket end an extra- 
ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, 
and then a much larger quantity of solder would 
be required to cover the edge, which would make 
the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make 
such a reliable joint either. 

When the socket end is properly fitted, it 
should be soiled and shaved half the length of 
the intended joint. The inside of the socket 
should also be shaved about half an inch down 
and touched. 

If the solder is used at a proper heat and 
splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- 
der in between the two surfaces where the ends 
are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 



90 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 



soundness is concerned, independent of the wip- 
ing or the form and shape of the solder when 
it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in 
a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- 
stances if the solder was wiped bare to the 
edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 




Fig. S9. 



Fig. 41. 



be advisable to do this, but still, a joint should 
and could be quite independent of the very large 
quantity of solder that is frequently used. But 
when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, 
it can generally be taken for granted that the 
plumber that made it, when he prepared the 



PEEPARING WIPED JOINTS 91 

ends, took great pains to close up the edge of 
the socket end to the spigot end so that it fitted 
tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented 
the slightest particle of solder getting in be- 
tween. The consequence very often is, that if 
the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and 
keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, 
or at least cold enough to set, the whole of the 
solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- 
ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder 
cooling into a compact mass, the contin- 
ual moving of it by the act of wiping 
causes the particles, as they become crystal- 
lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially 
disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- 
erate pressure the water will percolate through 
the joint and cause what is generally termed 
"sweating." Very often it is rather more than 
sweating, it can more correctly be compared to 
water running through a sieve. Under some con- 
ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent 
this sweating, especially if the solder is very 
coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- 
rious matters. The great advantage of leaving 
the socket end open is, that if the solder is used 
at a good heat, as it always should be when it 
is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a 
heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than 
that part of the solder which has been disturbed 
by the forming of the joint. 



JOINT-WIPING. 

Joint-wiping forms an important branch in the 
art of plumbing. It is a part of the work which 
requires more care, skill and practice than any 
of the other branches, and on it depends the 
success or failure of some of the most particu- 
lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious 
cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- 
wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- 
der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical 
and well proportioned as if it had been turned 
in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave 
joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as 
the appearance is concerned, if they were made 
on the bench or in some convenient place. There 
are too many who seem to think that sound work 
is good work, and therefore never try to make 
their work look as creditable as it should. The 
different styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, 
that one could go to any length describing the 
many eccentricities and peculiarities that are 
displayed in this particular branch of the trade. 
Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas 
in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- 
actly like another. 

After a helper has been at the trade for a 

92 



JOINT-WIPING 93 

short time, his one great ambition is to wipe a 
joint. He seems to think that if he can only 
manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- 
here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate 
it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or 
a turnip, as the case may be, he has done some- 
thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think 
he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another 
question with regard to joints is the proper 
lengths to make them. Some like long joints, 
others prefer short ones. The advocates of long 
joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not 
proportionate. They are often compared to tur- 
nips, and other things not quite so regular in 
shape. Those who are in favor of short joints 
say the long ones are not so sound, that they 
will not stand a great pressure, and are liable 
to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of 
enormous lengths, when a joint made more in 
proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not 
only be much stronger, but would look far neat- 
er, and generally require less solder. Then there 
is the question of wiping-cloths. A great many 
plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping 
joints, but, on the other hand, ,as many more 
say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. 
Many plumbers who are used to thick cloths 
and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are 
quite beaten if. they try to use thin cloths. The 
difference in the thickness of cloths is very great 



94 JOINT-WIPING 

in some cases. Very thin cloths are not suitable 
for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- 
er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can 
make joints far better and easier than if he used 
thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin 
cloths make joints very short and lumpy, and 
bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown 
about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. 
But when thicker cloths are used it is much 
easier to make joints more like the proper shape. 
This is very important in all joint-wiping, be- 
cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe 
is weaker here than any other part, whereas, 
if a joint is properly made, this part of it should 
be the strongest. In a large number of in- 
stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- 
sion and contraction, it will break at this weak 
point very soon after it is fixed. It would be 
difficult to say generally what should be a proper 
thickness for cloths, excepting that they should 
be in proportion to the width and length. Cloths 
for large joints should be much thicker than 
those used for small ones, because the larger the 
cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the 
shape required for wiping the joint. If a cloth 
used for making a four-inch joint were made of 
only about six thicknesses of moleskin, it 
would be no more, or at least but little more, use 
than one generally used for three-quarter or one- 
wtih joints, ttecause when a small amount of s&l- 



JOINT-WIPING 95 

der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and 
let the solder fall, so that the solder would not 
remain in the cloth except that caught in the 
middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- 
quently, there is much difficulty in getting up 
the great heat necessary to make a large joint. 
Then supposing it were possible to get up the 
heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to 
try to make the point as regular as would be the 
case if moderately thick cloth were used. The 
reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too 
much to the pressure of each finger, and there- 
fore presses unequally on the surface of the 
joint, making it either bare at the edges and 
showing the tinning, or causing the body of the 
joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- 
pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. 

A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent 
the impression of the fingers having any in- 
fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same 
time it should be thin enough to allow it to be 
bent the shape required without any great exer- 
tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould 
used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it 
could, it would not be so difficult, and require 
so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- 
though there can be no doubt that suitable tools 
are indispensable to the workman, yet it must 
be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the 
clfcth, however well made both in size and sk&pe, 



96 JOINT-WIPING 

will not make a joint without it is manipulated 
by an intelligent and experienced hand. 

Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of 
wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is 
generally made is that of using too thin cloths. 
It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, 
to make a good shaped joint with a thin cloth. 
The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 42 are 





Fig. 42. 



the kind of joint generally made with a thin 
cloth. By thin cloths are meant about fi^ r e 
thicknesses of moleskin or ticking. Ticking, 



JOINT-WIPING 97 

however, is not nearly so suitable for the pur- 
pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use 
of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too 
quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- 
most impossible to hold the cloth on account of 
the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a 
good wiped joint should consist of about eight 
thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a good 
cloth should be about an inch longer than the 
joint, and the length about the same or perhaps 
a little longer. 

It will not be found a good plan to fold up the 
cloth out of one piece of material, as when the 
folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the 
cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- 
ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice 
the length and exactly the same width as the 
cloth is required to be when finished. These 
should be folded once and then sewn together at 
the edge as shown in Fig. 43. To those who 
are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no 
doubt be found rather awkward at first to use 
thick ones, but a little practice will show that 
they are much more convenient to use and will 
turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in 
Fig. 42. Thin cloths after they are hot get 
out of shape and give too much, with the result 
that the edges of the joint are often wiped bare. 
Another and veiy important advantage of thick 
cloths is that the joints may be made muoh 



98 



JOINT-WIPING 



lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- 
cause a large amount of solder is used on a joint 
it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter 
one. 

When the solder on the joint is at such a heat 
as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it 
should be patted round with the cloth, and the 




Fig. 43 . 

surplus solder on the edges wiped off. The 
cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as 
shown in Fig. 44, and the wiping commenced 
at the back of the joint. While drawing the cloth 
upwards, the forefinger should be used to clean 
the edge nearest to it, after which the little 
finger should be used to clean the other edge. 
As stooa as the edges are cle&n, the body of the 



JOINT-WIPING 99 

joint can be formed with the middle of the cloth. 
Then take the cloth in the left hand, and push- 
ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- 
side edges of the joint with the fore and little 
fingers. Now take the cloth in the middle of 
the right hand, pressing equally with each finger 
so that the cloth touches the whole length of 
the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient 
with the right hand, then change quickly to the 




Fig. 44 . 

left hand and continue the wiping under the 
joint to the other side. It may be sometimes 
necessary to wipe the joint round this way two 
or even three times before it is smooth and 
clean, but it is much the better way to avoid 
wiping the surface more than is necessary. The 
sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, 
the better it will be, both for looks and reliabil- 
ity. 
Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 



100 JOINT-WIPING 

right joint as shown in Fig. 45, it is better to 
proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint 
all at once. The first stage is to pour on the 
metal and tin the joint, that is, cause a film of 
solder to alloy with the surface of the pipe. 




When the above described operation has been 
performed, the iron should be made hot, and 
the joint should be splashed by means of the 
splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and 



JOINT-WIPING 101 

sufficient solder is on it to allow of the wiping 
cloth to be used. Great care should be used in 
melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the 
solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should 
be heated to the right temperature and the bit 
filed clean and bright. The solder should first 
be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe 
and then on about two inches of the soiled part 
at each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- 
ways be held under the place where the solder 
is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. 
As the solder runs down the sides of the pipe 
and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up 
against the pipe to keep up the heat and also 
to tin the pipe. 

As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the 
solder should be formed into the shape of a 
joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with 
the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the 
other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint 
and wipe round with the cloth quickly and 
lightly, working downwards until the joint is 
finished. When the joint has partially cooled, 
it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it 
over with tallow and wiping off with a clean 
soft rag. 

Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 46 shows a badly 
shaped joint that is often made by the use 
of a thin cloth, while Fig. 46a shows a joint 
that may be much more readily made by the 



102 



JOINT-WIPING 



use of a thick cloth. When everything is ready 
and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be 
splashed on very carefully while at the same 
time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches 





Fig. 46 



each side of the joint with the solder. "When 
the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to 
make it difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- 
tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron 



JOINT-WIPING 



103 



at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end 
of the joint. Carefully form the sides of the 
joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by 
the continual application of the iron before each 




Fig. 46a 



part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at 
the same end as it was started by drawing the 
wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 



104 JOINT-WIPING 

A lead pipe can be wiped to a cast iron pipe 
with a fair amount of ease, but the joint will not 
stand satisfactorily. The best way is to file clean 
the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it 
with pure tin, using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The 
pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, 
and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease 
as a flux. A plumber's joint, Z 1 /^ inches long for 
4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. 
Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, 
sound, strong joint between the two metals. Nev- 
ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a 
few years, the cast iron will come out of the 
solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring 
of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This 
rust will swell a little and cause the end of the 
soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually 
the rust will creep between the solder and the 
iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the 
other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the 
solder should contain as great a proportion as 
possible of the metals that are to be united. The 
joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- 
peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under 
such conditions the solder would expand .001251 
inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or 
less than half as much as the solder. The joint 
would therefore eventually become p ^oose ring 
on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the 



JOINT-WIPING 105 

expansion of lead and solder do not differ ma- 
terially. 

Numerous experiments have been tried for 
overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- 
dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which 
has been found to approach success has been to 
insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this 
method, however, has not been wholly successful 
with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- 
ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints 
can be made very easily, without the tin lining 
melting. 

It would often be a convenience if copper pipes 
could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but 
plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with cop- 
per tube, for the expansion and contraction will 
not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- 
water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints 
would be satisfactory, though troublesome to 
make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be 
threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and 
screw them together the same as with iron pipe, 
except that with long runs there must be expan- 
sion joints or other provision made for expan- 
sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes 
is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and 
then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- 
ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- 
able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is 
in damp ground. However, should circumstances 



106 JOINT-WIPING 

suggest that a wiped joint might answer, the 
work is done as described below. 

Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than 
wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches 
or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 
inches long, 4-inch pipes have joints about 5 
inches long, but it must be remembered that 
whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint 
are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- 
stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of 
service does not depend on the length or thick- 
ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That 
which determines practically the life of the joint 
is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned 
before making the wiped joint. If the interiors 
of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 
inches, if the joint is cut open, in a few years' 
time, it is found that the tinning has diminished 
to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken 
place at the end of the tinning, for this reason 
it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, 
so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- 
ure of the joint. In tinning copper, first thor- 
oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or 
scour with sand and water, and then rinse it 
with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. 
Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a 
flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub 
the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a 
portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- 



JOINT-WIPING 107 

portant that untinned spots are not left on the 
interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the 
destruction of the tinning commences at once. 
The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning 
is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient 
lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the 
joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe 
ends are placed together, when practicable, over 
the iron pot containing the molten solder, which 
is then poured, continuously over the joint until 
a heat is got up. This practice is not possible 
with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case 
the lead would melt, and in the other the molten 
zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. 
When the pipes cannot be moved, a shovel is 
placed beneath the joint and the solder poured 
on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- 
tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a 
cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in 
much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is 
wiped. 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD 
BURNING. 

The art of lead burning has for many years 
been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- 
ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and 
one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- 
coming very proficient. There is not required a 
large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu- 
tion of lead burning, because, as a matter of 
fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- 
ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In 
most cases where lead burning was considered 
necessary, such for instance as lining large 
tanks in chemical factories especially for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was 
simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to 
wooden framework and the edges burned to- 
gether. Of late years, however, this method of 
burning the edges of lead together has been 
adopted for numerous other purposes, such as 
the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and 
lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks 
the solder. 

The modern term for lead burning is "auto- 
genous soldering." The word "autogenous" is 
rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 

108 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 109 

define, it pertains to the word "autogeneal," 
which means * i self -begotten or generating it- 
self," neither of which is very appropriate to 
the process of lead burning. In fact the latter 
term is not strictly applicable, because the lead 
is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable 
term would be "fusing process." Instead of 
saying "the seams are burned," it would be 
better to say "the seams are fused," as this 
would correctly describe the action that takes 
place. 

The simplest kind of lead burning is that 
known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the 
only kind that plumbers are likely to make use 
of. Professional lead burners of course are re- 
quired to burn seams in many different ways, 
even horizontal seams overhead are sometimes 
necessary. When the seams of sinks and cisterns 
have to be burned, the joints should always be 
arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- 
cause if the seams are arranged in the angles 
the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the 
surface of the lead at the side and burn them 
through before the seam is formed. It is best 
also to butt the edges of the lead and not to 
lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- 
ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip 
of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- 
rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted 
and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 



110 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

should be directed towards the part of the seam 
to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. 
Then cause the flame to play upon the small 
drop of lead until that and the lead upon which 
it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- 
ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat 
of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less 
time than it takes to describe it. So that the 
operator has to be quick in manipulating the 
blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over 
a much larger space than is desirable. It must 
not be supposed that a flowing seam like that 
produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be 
formed by the burning process, this, under the 
circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has 
to be formed separately by a distinct applica- 
tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves 
will depend partly upon the skill of the opera- 
tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on 
the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. 
But like most other mechanical operations pro- 
ficiency has to be attained by practice and ex- 
perience. When it is found necessary to burn 
seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is 
generally arranged in a slanting direction for 
the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of 
molten lead to rest upon until they are fused 
into the seam, which is formed of a series of 
drops, instead of waves. A similar appearance 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 111 

is obtained when seams axe burned on an up- 
right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. 

Another very convenient way to produce a 
good flame for lead burning is to use compressed 
oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- 
ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under 
great pressure, is used for the blast instead of 
air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. 

When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe 
of this kind with a supply of oxygen at the rate 
of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply 
through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- 
inch wrought-iron rod easily, the intense heat 
of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably 
the oxygen method of burning would be rather 
costly where only small jobs of lead burning are 
occasionally required, but where there is a con- 
siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen 
would be far more preferable to the cumber- 
some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. 

There is yet another method which has been 
adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, 
namely the use of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. 

The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on 
an iron mandrel, or if a flat, seam, on an iron 
plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, 
slowly fusing the lead together as it goes. A 
core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- 
pose. 

It is, of course, a rough and ready way of 



112 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

doing the work, and it involves a large amount 
of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But 
it is nevertheless effectual, and, where more skil- 
ful means are not at hand, it often serves the 
purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, 
do for general application, in fact, in numerous 
instances where lead burning is required, it 
would not be at all practicable. 

In conclusion, it may be well to point out that 
the idea of substituting the burning system for 
soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at 
all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all 
very well for special purposes, but the art of 
soldering in the modern style is too well estab- 
lished to be ever superseded by the compara- 
tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not 
only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- 
stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not 
nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' 
work, and there does not at present seem any 
probability of it ever becoming a successful com- 
petitor. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS. 

Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter 
and one-sixth, and one-eighth and one-sixteenth 





Pig. 47. 





Fig. 48. 



cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown 
in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- 
quarter and one-eighth bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 

113 



114 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Quarter bends with heel and side outlets are 
shown in Figs. 51 and 52. 

A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown 
in Fig. 53. 

Figures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil 
pipe with left-hand inlet, a sanitary T-branch 





Pig. 49. 



Pig. 50. 



with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- 
hand inlet, respectively. 

A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- 
branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs, 
57, 58, 59 and 60. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



115 





Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



116 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 





Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 





Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



117 



A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a cross 
and a sanitary cross all tapped for iron pipe are 
shown in Figs. 61 and 62. 





Fig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 





Fig. 61. 



118 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double T- 
branch and double half Y-branch are shown in 
Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66. 





Pig. 62. 




Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64. 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 



119 



A ventilating cap and a Y-saddle hub are il- 
lustrated in Fig. 67, and half Y-saddle hub and 
a T-saddle hub in Fiff. 63. 




Fig. 65. 




Fig. 66. 



A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an 
inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch 
pipe are shown in Figs. 69, 70 and 71. 



120 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 





Pig. 67. 





Fig. 68. 





Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



121 



A T-branch, a sanitary T-branch and a Y- 
branch with trap-screw are shown in Figs. 72, 
73 and 74. 





Pig. 71. 



Fig. 72. 





Pig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



122 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Traps. A running trap with hand-hole and 
cover, and one with two hub-vents are illus- 
trated in Figs. 75 and 76. 




Fig. 75. 




Fig. 76. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



123 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a 

half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. 

An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 




Fig. 77. 





Pig. 78. 



Fig. 79. 



124 



DRAINAGE FITTING'S 



S-trap, all with hand-hole and cover, are shown 

in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. 




Fig. 80. 




Fig. 81. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



125 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 
84 and 85. 




Fig. 82. 




Fig. S3. 



126 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain running trap and a running trap with 
hub-vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. 
Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter 




Fig. 84. 




Fig. 85. 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 



W 



S, half S or P and running bends are shown 
in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. 




Pig. 86. 




Fi*. 87. 



128 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



CO 

a 

u 

h 




DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



129 



5 

O 




130 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also 
shown in Fig. 89. 




rig 92. 



Fig. 93. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



131 



Hopper Traps. A high pattern S-trap for lead 
pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a high 
pattern three-quarter and half S-trap for iron 
pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. 




Fig. 94. 



Pig. 95. 




Fig. 96. 



132 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain three-quarter S high pattern hopper 
trap, a three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap 
with hub-vent and three-quarter S high pattern 




Fig. 97. 




Pig. 98. 



hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are 
shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 95. 
A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



133 



trap with hub-vent and a high pattern S-trap 
with hand hole and cover, all for lead pipe con- 
nections, are shown in Figs. 96, 97 and 98. 

The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe 
connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101. 




Fig. 99. 




Fig- 100. 



1M 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




Fig. 101. 




Fig. 102. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



135 



A half S-trap plain, a half S-trap with hub- 
vent and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover 
are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. 

Sewer gas and back water traps are shown in 
Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and 




Fig. 103. 




Fig. 104. 



136 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



swing check valves to prevent any back flow of 
water. 




Fig. 106. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



137 



Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- 
ling's are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. 

Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and 
swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover 




Fig. 107. 




Fig. 108. 



138 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 



and with brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 
108, 109 and 110. 




Fig. 109. 




Fig. 110. 




Fig. 111. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



139 



Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with 
cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. 
A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is 




Pig. 112. 




Fig. 113. 



140 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 shows a 
slop sink with bell-trap and strainer. A cellar 
cesspool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- 
lar shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir- 
cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. 




Fig. 114. 




Fig. 115. 



SANITARY PLUMBING. 

The Bathroom, There are good reasons why 
a bathroom should be finished in the best man- 
ner in preference to any other room in the house. 
As a rule, the bathroom is more used than any 
other room in the house except the kitchen. It 
requires the best material to stand such con- 
stant use, and it is always economy to have the 
best material for purposes where hard usage or 
work is to be performed. Without a good fin- 
ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, 
the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition. From the sanitary condition of the bath- 
room the sanitary condition of the entire house 
may be judged. Any person who pays atten- 
tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can 
also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. 
Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any 
other part of the house will be in a proper sani- 
tary condition. 

A bathroom should be welMighted with win- 
dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It 
should be heated to a much higher temperature 
than any other room in the house, and should be 
thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and 
casings should be of such material that they will 

141 



142 SANITARY PLUMBING 

be proof against water and steam. The floors 
should never be covered with carpet, as it is a 
very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard 
wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. 

The bathroom of the modern house is often 
the most expensive room in the house, as today 
people who have both taste and means are spend- 
ing large sums of money in securing the most 
sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- 
est degree of art in everything pertaining to 
the bathroom. Fig. 116 shows a bathroom in 
which all the fixtures are open work, a roll- 
rimmed porcelain lined bathtub with carved 
brass feet, and also screen shower attachment, 
a sitz bath of the same material and finish as 
the bathtub, a syphon closet with low down flush 
tank, a washbowl with nickel-plated legs and 
brackets as supports, also nickel-plated supply 
and waste fixtures. 

Bathtubs. In Fig. 117 is shown a porcelain 
roll rim bathtub. This is a sanitary article in 
every manner, as it requires no woodwork about 
it, and as this bathtub is made entirely of one 
piece, there is no chance for dirt to lodge in any 
part of it. This bathtub will last a life-time; 
once properly set there will be no further ex- 
pense for repairs. The porcelain bathtub is 
not without some fault or disadvantage; it is 
very heavy to handle. It is no easy matter to 
carry a bathtub of this kind up one or two 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



143 




114 SANITARY PLUMBING 

flights of stairs and land it safely to where it is 
to be set. It requires the greatest care in hand- 
ling. In using the porcelain bathtub it has an- 
other bad point in being very cold to the touch 
until it has become entirely warm from the hot 
water. 

What is styled a corner porcelain bathtub is 
illustrated in Fig. 118, the back and end of the 
tub are to be built into the wall, and the base sets 
into the floor. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings, which 
are connected directly to the bathtub itself. 

Three styles of porcelain enameled bathtubs 
are shown in Figs. 119, 120 and 121, the supply 
and waste are connected directly to the bathtubs 
shown in Figs. 119 and 120, while the bathtub 
shown in Fig. 121 has only the waste and over- 
flow connections on the tub. 

A solid porcelain roll rim sitz bath is illus- 
trated in Fig. 122. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings. 

A porcelain enameled footbath is shown in 
Fig. 123, it is also fitted with nickel-plated com- 
bination bell supply and waste fittings. 

Fig. 121 illustrates a combination spray and 
shower bath with rubber curtain and porcelain 
enameled roll rim receptor. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a bathtub are shown in Fig. 125. The cast iron 
soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main air 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



145 




\4Z 



SANITABY PLUMBING 







SANITARY PLUMBING 



14? 




bfi 

E 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




SANITARY PLUMBING 



149 



pipe 2 inches, and the air-vent pipe on the con- 
nection leading from the trap 1% inches; the 
waste and overflow from the tub are also l 1 /? 
inches in diameter. 

Water Closets. The washout closet is, per- 
haps, the best sanitary water closet, and they 




Fig. 122. 



are made by nearly all manufacturers of sani- 
tary fixtures. This closet is made with the bowl 
and trap combined in one single piece. The 
washout closet would be almost perfect if it 
were set up and connected as intended to be, 
and with a good local vent connected. The local 



150 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



vent is the best possible thing that could be 
attached to a water closet, but, like all other 
arrangements, it must be made in such a way so 
that it will operate at all times and during every 
condition of the atmosphere. The local vent is 




Fig. 123. 



connected to the bowl of the closet for the 
purpose of taking away the air from the bowl 
of the closet in the room where it may be lo- 
cated, so that no foul odors while being used 
will pass from the closet to the room. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



151 




Fig. 124. 



152 SANITARY PLUMBING 




SANITARY PLUMBING 153 

To make the local vent work satisfactorily at 
all times it will be necessary to arrange the pipes 
so that there would always be a suction in the 
pipe drawing from the point which is connected 
with the water closet bowl. This pipe can never 
be connected with the main ventilating shaft of 
the soil pipe, but must escape from the house 
by some other channel. In order to cause this 
local current of air to pass up and out of the 
house from the water closet bowl, it will be 
necessary to provide some artificial heat for this 
purpose. And where it is possible to connect 
to a chimney flue that is always warm when the 
house is occupied, the desired result may be had 
without any additional expense. 

The washout closet is far from being an ideal 
sanitary fixture. It is an improvement over the 
hopper style of closet, yet its principle is not 
correct because it does not wash out. The ob- 
jection to the washout closet is, that its bowl 
becomes filthy in a short time, and without hav- 
ing attached to it a local vent the bad odors 
from the bowl become unbearable. In the bowl 
of the washout closet there is too much dry sur- 
face, and the soil clings to it and cannot be 
washed off with the flow of water as it falls from 
the tank. The appearance of the inside of this 
closet is also very bad, especially the style of 
washout with the back outlet as shown in Fig. 
126. 



154 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



Pig. 127 shows a washout closet with front 
outlet. 

A short oval flushing rim hopper water closet, 
with trap and air vent on the top of syphon is 
shown in Pig. 128. 

Two styles of seal operated water closets are 
shown in Pigs. 129 and 130, one with long hop- 




Fig. 126. 



per without trap and the other with short hop- 
P<* and (rap. The scat is normally kept open 
by the weigh! shown to the right, when de- 
pressed by the act of a person silling upon the 
closet, the small arm or lever attached to the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



155 




Fig. 128. 



156 SANITARY PLUMBING 

seat comes into contact with the plunger valve, 
causing the water to flow as long as the seat is 
down. 
A syphon jet water closet with low down tank 




Fig. 129. 



is shown in Fig. 131. It is necessary with this 
style of tank to increase the diameter of the 
flush pipe in order to induce syphonage in the 
closet. With this increased opening a large quan- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



157 



tity of water is thrown into the closet, which is 
sufficient to make the syphon operate. 

A prison water closet with short hopper and 
trap to wall connection is shown in Fig. 132. A 




Fig. 130. 



self-closing faucet is connected to the flushing 
rim. 
A syphon jet closet set up complete with hard- 



158 



SANITAET PLUMBING 




Fig. 131. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



159 



wood, copper-lined syphon tank and concealed 
water supply pipe is shown in Fig. 133. 

Water closet seats with legs and with or 
without lid are shown in Figs. 134 and 135. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a washout water closet are shown in Fig. 136. 




Fig. 132. 



The cast iron soil pipe and the lead elbow 
which connects the trap of the closet with the 
soil pipe are both 4 inches inside diameter while 
the air-vent from the lead elbow and the main 



160 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 133. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 161 




Fig. 135. 



162 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. The air- 
vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe of 
cast iron. 
Urinals. A flat back porcelain urinal is illus- 




Fig. 136. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



163 



trated in Fig. 137, and corner porcelain urinals 
in Figs. 138 and 139. These are adapted for us# 
in hotels and office buildings. 




Fig. 137. 




Fif. IBS. 



164 SANITARY PLUMBING 

Individual stall urinals are shown in Figs. 140 
and 141. Tlie one shown in Fig. 140 has a plain 
stall with floor trough and spray pipe, while the 
one shown in Fig. 141 has urinal bowls or hop- 
pers attached to the back wall. A complete 
toilet room containing closets, urinals and wash- 
bowls is shown in Fig. 142. This represents the 
interior of a toilet room in a hotel or office build- 
ing. 




Fig. 139. 

Washbowls. A job which requires experience 
and good judgment is the setting of porcelain 
w^ashbowls to marble slabs. Although it may 
look like an easy job, no one can do this work 
well unless having had considerable experience. 
In setting washbowls to marble slabs there are 
some things to be considered, and to accomplish 
tkese things in a satisfactory manner there must 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



165 



be some calculations made. To have a wash- 
bowl properly fitted to a marble slab it is neces- 
sary to grind the flange of the bowl so that it 




Fig. 140. 

will lay level on the slab. This has to be done 
by rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the- 



166 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



bowl on the marble, using sand and water on 
the marble, until the top edge of the bowl is 
perfectly flat and level. This grinding action 




Fig. 141. 



also takes off the glazed surface and allows the 
plaster-of-Paris to take hold of the procelain 



SANITAEY PLUMBING 



167 




3 

S 



168 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



and make a perfect joint. Tlie bowl must be set 
perfectly even all around with the hole in the 
slab. The less plaster used in setting bowls the 
better. It is a poor job that has to be filled up 
with a large amount of plaster. To get the posi- 
tion of the holes for the bowl clamps, it will be 
necessary to mark on the back of the slab the 
exact position of the edge of the bowl, then 




Fig. 143. 

space off the distance and drill the slab for at 
least four clamps. In drilling the slab for the 
clamp holes the polished surface of the slab must 
rest on the floor, and in order not to scratch or 
injure it the slab should have under it a bed of 
some soft and clean material. The clamps should 
be well calked into the slab with melted lead, 
and made so that they will not shake nor pull 
out. 
Independent bowls for attaching to marble 



SANITARY PLUMBING 169 

slabs are shown in Figs. 143 and 144. They are 
provided with brass plugs and coupling and 
rubber stopper for the waste. 

A roll-edge washbowl with removable strainer 
at the overflow, nickel-plated plug and coupling 
and rubber stopper, and bronzed brackets is 
shown in Fig. 145. 

A half-circle roll edge washbowl with high 




Fig. 144. 

back and apron, cast in one piece, is shown in 
Fig. 146. 

Fig. 147 shows a roll-edge oval washbowl with 
overflow with removable strainer, bronzed brack- 
ets, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber 
stopper. 

A roll-edge corner washbowl with oval bowl, 
removable nickel-plated strainer, nickel-plated 
plug and coupling and rubber stopper is shown 
in Fig. 148. 



m 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 145. 




Fig. 146. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



171 




Fig. 148. 



172 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 



A roll-edge slab and bowl with ideal waste is 
shown in Fig. 149. It has a round bowl and 
high back. 

A vertical cross section of the above bowl 
showing the ideal waste is given in Fig. 150. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections 




Fig. 149. 

for a washbowl are shown in Fig. 151. The 
cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The 
waste pipe from the bowl and the air-vent pipe 
from the top of the syphon are l 1 /2 inches and 
the main air pipe 2 inches in diameter. 
Drinking Fountains. A solid porcelain double 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



173 



roll edge drinking fountain with back and bowl 
in one piece is shown in Fig. 152. It has a self- 
closing faucet and nickel-plated drip-cup with 
strainer. A one-piece solid porcelain drinking 
fountain with roll-edge bowl is shown in Fig. 




Fig. 150. 



153. It has a self-closing faucet and nickel- 
plated half S-trap. 

A marble drinking fountain is shown in Fig. 

154, which has a counter sunk slab -and high 
back, nickel-plated Fuller pantry cock, drip-cock 
with shield, nickel-plated supply pipe, and trap 
with vent and waste to wall. 



SI* SANITARY PLUMBING 




pie. 151. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 175 

Drinking fountains of the type shown in Fig- 
ares 152 and 153 are now prohibited by law in the 
public places of many cities; bubbling fountains 
being required instead. 

Sinks. The enameled iron sink is a great ad- 
vancement in sanitary improvements. When 




Fig. 152. 

made properly and used for light work it is all 
that could be desired, because it is coated with 
a material which wears well, and is also proof 
against the action of gases or acids. It has a 
smooth finish and is easily kept clean, but it is 
Bot suitable for heavy or rough work. In the 



176 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



larger sinks this enameled coating cracks off 
easily when heavy utensils are placed in it, 
which causes the sink to bend, and the enamel, 







Fig. 153. 



having very little elasticity, must naturally 
crack. It sometimes cracks by the uneven or 
sudden expansion and contraction of the iron. 



WATER SERVICE 177 

The first step in the process of installing the 
water service system in a building is, to procure 
from the proper authorities a permit for the in- 
troduction or use of water in the building. 

The tapping of the street main is done by work- 
men in the employ of the water department of the 
city, or town. A cock, called a corporation cocl 
is screwed into the main, and to this cock a section 
of lead pipe, the length of which is governed by 
local rulings, is connected by means of a wiped 
joint. Lead pipe should in all cases be used for 
making this connection, for the reason that, owing 
to its pliability, there is much less danger of break- 
age caused by the settling of the main, or of the 
service pipe, than there would be were the con- 
nection made with wrought iron pipe which would 
be rigid. 

The size of the service leading to the building 
will depend, of course, upon the amount of water 
that will be required ; and if two or more distinct 
and separate buildings are to be supplied by means 
of branch, or sub-service pipes supplied by a 
single tap in the street main, each branch should 
be independently arranged with a stop cock and 
box on the curb line. 

These stop cocks are for the purpose of shutting 
off the water when required, and each service pipe 
must be equipped with one, located within the side- 
walk at, or near the curb line of the same. 

The service pipe leading from the street main 
into the building must be laid below the frost line 



178 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Stop Cock in Building. Each service pipe 
must also be provided with a stop-cock inside the 
building, placed beyond damage by frost, and so 
situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
off, and drained from the pipes, in order to pre- 
vent freezing in cold weather. 

Service Pipes in Building. The main riser, 
from which branch pipes are carried to the various 
fixtures, should start in the basement at or near 
the shutoff cock ; tee outlets being inserted at the 
proper locations under the ceilings of each room 
for connecting the branches to the fixtures on the 
floor above. These branches can also be con- 
nected, leaving their nipples extending through 
the floors at the proper locations for connection 
with the fixtures they are to serve. These nip- 
ples should then be capped over to prevent dirt 
or other foreign matter from getting into the pipe 
before a permanent connection is made to the fix- 
tures. The caps should be screwed on tightly and 
left there until the piping system has been thor- 
oughly tested. 

Testing. After the risers, and branch pipes 
of the water service have been installed, and all 
openings either capped over, or plugged, the sys- 
tem should be thoroughly tested before any con- 
nections to fixtures are made. If the testing is 
done at the proper time, that is before the floors 
are laid, or plastering done, the leaks, if there are 
any can be much more easily discovered, and re- 
paired than they could be if covered by floors or 
plastering. In fact the majority of large cities 



METHOD OF TESTING 179 

and towns at the present day require by law that 
all plumbing in a new building shall remain ex- 
posed until after the job has been tested and 
passed upon by the inspector. 

Methods of Testing. The entire plumbing 
system when roughed in must be tested by the 
plumber in the presence of the inspector of plumb- 
ing if there be such an official, or if there is no 
local inspector, the plumber should test the work 
nevertheless for his own satisfaction. 

Water Test. This test should always be ap- 
plied to new work before the connections are made 
to the fixtures. The water test is to be applied to 
all the soil, waste and vent pipes, as well as to the 
water service pipes. In the case of the soil, waste 
and vent pipes, all openings except those above 
the roof are to be closed by soldering them shut 
on lead pipe, and by plugs, or caps on iron or steel 
pipe. The entire system of piping is then filled 
with water, the filling to be done slowly, and when 
filled, every joint should be carefully examined for 
leaks, and if any are found they should be repaired 
at once. A leak in a caulked joint may often be 
stopped by additional caulking, but if a split pipe, 
or fitting is found, it will be necessary to replace it. 

On some jobs the plasterers may be in a hurry 
to get along with their work, and in such cases the 
soil stacks can be tested in sections, by leaving out 
a length of pipe on each floor, and afterward in- 
serting the same for the final test, care being taken 
to always leave the length of pipe out at some 
point where it will be easily accessible to insert. 



180 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Air Pressure Test. The air pressure test is 
applied by means of a force pump and a mercury 
column equal to ten inches of mercury. All open- 
ings in the system are to be closed with the excep- 
tion of the one to which the force pump is con- 
nected. 

The pump is then operated until the pressure 
of air in the system is sufficient to raise the mer- 
cury column to a height of ten inches. The pump 
is then stopped, and if the column of mercury re- 
mains permanently at that height the test is com- 
plete, but if the mercury column should gradually 
fall, it is an indication of a leak, and this should 
be investigated at once. 

Smoke Test. After the completion of the 
work, and when the fixtures are installed the 
smoke test can be applied, and this is done by clos- 
ing all openings, including those above the roof. 

A device in which a heavy smoke may be gen- 
erated by the burning of oily waste, or rags, is 
then connected to the system which is soon filled 
with the smoke, and if there are any leaks, they 
may easily be detected by the smoke which will 
escape through them. 

Peppermint Test. This test may be applied 
in place of the smoke test, if preferred, at the time 
the job is completed. It is usually applied in test- 
ing alterations, or repair work; in fact it is the 
only test permitted in some localities, after exten- 
sions, or repairs of old systems. The pepper- 
mint test is made by using about five fluid ounces 
of oil of peppermint for each line of pipe up to 



METHOD OF TESTING 181 

five stories and basement in height, and for each 
additional five stories or fraction thereof one ad- 
ditional ounce is to be used. All openings excepl 
those above the roof are to be closed. The oil of 
peppermint is then poured into the roof opening, 
and immediately after this pour in about one-half 
gallon of hot water for each ounce of peppermint 
oil, after which close the roof opening tightly with 
a plug. The mixture of oil of peppermint and 
water will then flow to every portion of the sys- 
tem of piping, and if there are any leaks the fumes 
of the peppermint will penetrate through them, 
and they can be detected by the odor of the pep- 
permint present. 

Testing the Water Service. After the water 
piping system has been installed, water pressure 
from the street main can be easily applied to the 
entire system of water piping, or it may be tested 
in sections if necessary while being installed, and 
the leaks if there are any will soon make them- 
selves manifest. 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the matter 
of testing all parts of an installation of plumbing 
in a building, for the reason that the health, and 
lives of the occupants of the building are in a 
great measure dependent upon the character of 
the work, and the quality of the materials used. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. Table 7 gives the dimen- 
sions, thickness of metal, threads per inch, and 
other valuable details relative to wrought iron, or 
steel pipe in sizes running from one-eighth inch, 
up to fifteen inches inside diameter. 



182 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 





Dimensions of Wrought-Iron Pipe. 


Nominal 

Inside 
Diameter. 


Actual 

Outside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Actual 

Inside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Thickness 
of Metal 
in Inches. 


Threads 
per Inch. 


Length of 

Full 

Thread 

in Inches. 


% 


.405 


.270 


.068 


27 


.19 


% 


.540 


.364 


.085 


18 


.29 


% 


.675 


.493 


.091 


18 


.30 


% 


.840 


.622 


.109 


14 


.39 


% 


1.050 


.824 


.113 


14 


.40 


1 


1.315 


1.048 


.134 


11% 


.51 


1% 


1.660 


1.380 


.140 


11% 


.54 


1% 


1.900 


1.610 


.145 


11% 


.55 


2 


2.375 


2.067 


.154 


11% 


.58 


2% 


2.875 


2.468 


.204 


8 


.89 


3 


3.500 


3.067 


.217 


8 


.95 


3% 


4.000 


3.548 


.226 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.500 


4.026 


.237 


8 


1.05 


4% 


5.000 


4.508 


.246 


8 


1.10 


5 


5.563 


5.045 


.259 


8 


1.16 


6 


6.625 


6.065 


.280 


8 


1.26 


7 


7.625 


7.023 


.301 


8 


1.36 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


.322 


8 


1.46 


9 


9.625 


8.937 


.344 


8 


1.57 


10 


10.750 


10.018 


.366 


8 


1.68 


11 


11.75 


11.000 


.375 


8 


1.78 


12 


12.75 


12.000 


.375 


8 


1.88 


13 


14. 


13.25 


.375 


8 


2.09 ! 


14 


15. 


14.25 


.375 


8 


2.10 


15 


16. 


15.25 


.375 


8 


2.20 



TABLE 7 

Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. 

Pipe from % inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and 
tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

Pipe 1% inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
pounds per square inch. 



WROUGHT IRON PIPE 



183 



Table of Quantitity of Water Delivered by Service 


Pipes of Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. 


Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L). 




Gallons Per Minute. 




UX3 


h4 


i-3 


h5 


»4 


h4 


h4 


r4 


r4 


4) O 


rH 


Oi 


00 


t^ 


CO 


i& 


rH 


CO 


TO Q, 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


5S 


w 


W 


w 


w 


W 


H 


a 


w 


X 


19.8 


18.7 


17.7 


16.5 


15.3 


14.0 


*12.5 


10.8 


% 


34.5 


32.7 


30.1 


28.9 


26.5 


24.4 


21.5 


18.9 


% 


54.4 


51.7 


48.7 


45.6 


42.2 


38.5 


34.4 


29.8 


1 


111.8 


106.0 


100.0 


93.5 


86.6 


79.0 


70.7 


61.2 


IX 


195.2 


185.2 


174.6 


163.3 


151.2 


138.0 


123.4 


106.9 


IX 


308.0 


292.1 


275.4 


257.6 


238.5 


217.7 


194.8 


168.7 


2 


632.2 


599.7 


566.4 


538.9 


488.1 


447.0 


399.8 


346.3 


2X 


1104.0 


1048.0 


987.8 


924.0 


855.4 


780.9 


698.5 


604.9 


3 


1745.0 


1651.0 


1560.0 


1460.0 


1351.0 


1234.01103.0 


955.5 


4 


3581.0 


3397.0 


3203.02996.0 


2774.0 


2532.0 2265.0 


1962.0 


5 


6247.0 


5928.0 


5588.0 5227.0 


4839.0 


4417.0 3951.0 


3406.0 


6 


9855.0 


9349.0 


8814.0 8245.0 


7633.0 6968.0 6233.0 


5391.0 


o S 


a 


h4 


t4 


hj 


, 


# 


. 


m 




A 


«f* 


H* 


H« 


h; 


(-; 


hH* 


1-3 


|| 


(M 


rH 


rH 


jH 


rH 


eo\# 


^ 


H"* 




II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


5S 


a 


w 


w 


H 


H 


W 


m 


H 


X 


8.8 


8.3 


7.7 


7.0 


6.3 


5.4 


4.4 


3.1 


% 


15.4 


14.4 


13.4 


12.2 


10.9 


9.5 


7.7 


5.5 


% 


24.3 


22.8 


21.1 


19.3 


17.2 


14.9 


12.2 


8.6 


1 


50.0 


46.8 


43.2 


39.5 


35.3 


30.6 


25.0 


17.7 


lX 


87.3 


81.6 


75.6 


69.0 


61.7 


53.5 


43.7 


30.9 


IX 


137.7 


128.8 


119.3 


108.9 


97.4 


84.3 


68.7 


48.7 


2 


282.7 


264.4 


248.8 


223.5 


199.9 


173.1 


141.4 


100.0 


2X 


493.9 


482.0 


427.7 


390.4 


349.2 


302.4 


246.9 


174.6 


3 


780.2 


728.8 


674.8 


615*9 


555.5 


477.1 


390.1 


275.8 


4 


1602.0 


1496.0 


1385.0 


1264.0 


1133.0 


979.3 


800.8 


566.2 


5 


2791.0 


2613.0 


2420.0 


2209.0 


1976.0 


1711.0 


1394.0 


987.7 


6 


4407.0 


4122.0 


3817.0 3484.0 


3116.0 


2693.0 


2204.0 


1558.0 



TABLE 8 



184 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Table Showing Pressure of Water at Different 
Elevations. 



Feet Head. 



1 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 



Equals 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch. 



Feet Head. 



.43 
2.16 
4.33 
6.49 
8.66 
10.82 
12.99 
15.16 
17.32 
19.49 
21.65 
23.82 
25.99 
28.15 
30.32 
32.48 
34.65 
36.82 
38.98 
41.15 
43.31 
45 ? 48 
47.64 
49.81 
51.98 
54.15 



130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 



Equals 

Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 



56.31 
58.48 
60.64 
62.81 
64.97 
67.14 
69.31 
71.47 
73.64 
75.80 
77.97 
80.14 
82.30 
84.47 
86.63 
88.80 
90.96 
93.14 
95.30 
97.49 
99.63 
101.79 
103.96 
106.13 
108.29 



'eet Head. 



255 
260 
265 
270 
275 
280 
285 
290 
295 
300 
310 
320 
330 
340 
350 
360 
370 
380 
390 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1000 



Equals 
Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 



110.46 
112.62 
114.79 
116.96 
119.12 
121.29 
123.45 
125.62 
127.78 
129.95 
134.28 
138.62 
142.95 
147.28 
151.61 
155.94 
160.27 
164.61 
168.94 
173.27 
216.58 
259.90 
303.22 
346.54 
389.86 
433.18 



TABLE 9 



WROUGHT IRON PIPE 



185 





Weight of Copper Pipes Per Foot. 


Bore in 
Inches. 


Thickness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. 


tV 


% 


3 

T-5- 


X 


5 


% 




pounds. 


pounds . 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


X 


0.426 


0.946 


1.561 


2.270 


3.075 


3.973 


% 


0.520 


1.185 


1.845 


2.649 


3.547 


4.540 


x 


0.615 


1.324 


2.129 


3.027 


4.020 


5.108 


X 


0.709 


1.514 


2.412 


3.425 


4.493 


5.67Q 


i 


0.804 


1.703 


2.696 


3.784 


4.966 


6.243 


IX 


0.993 


2.081 


3.263 


4.540 


5.712 


7.378 


IX 


1.182 


2.459 


3.831 


5.297 


6.857 


8.514 


IX 


1.372 


2.838 


■4.388 


6.055 


7.805 


9.646 


2 


1.560 


3.217 


4.967 


6.808 


8.748 


10.783 


2% 


1.750 


3.591 


5.531 


7.566 


9.694 


11.918 


2X 


1.940 


3.975 


6.103 


8.327 


10.643 


13.066 


2% 


2.128 


4.352 


6.668 


9.081 


11.590 


14.190 


3 


2.316 


4.729 


7.238 


9.737 


12.534 


15.325 


Weight of Brass Pipes Per Foot. 


Bore in 
Inches. 


Thickness in Parts of an Inch. 












l 


% 


3 


X 


5 


/8 


7 
is 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds pounds. 


pounds. 


X 


0.22 


0.53 


0.94 


1.43 


2.01 


2.68 


3.44 
4.70 


X 


0.40 


0.89 


1.47 


2.15 


2.91 


3,75 


X 


0.58 


1.25 


2.01 


2.86 


3.80 


4.83 


5.95 


1 


0.76 


1.61 


2.55 


3.58 


4.70 


5.92 


7.25 


lX 


0.94 


1.96 


3.09 


4.31 


. 5.64 


6.98 


9.46 


IX 


1.12 


2.34 


3.67 


5.01 


6.49 


8.05 


9.71 


IX 


1.33 


2.66 


4.14 


5.70 


7.36 


9.11 


10.94 


2 


1.48 


3.04 


4.69 


6.44 


8.27 


10.20 


12.21 


2X 


1.65 


3.40 


5.23 


7.16 


,9.17 


11.27 


13.46 


2X 


1.83 


3.75 


5.77 


7.87 


10.06 


12.35 


14.72 


2%. 


2.01 


4.11 


6.31 


8,59 


10.96 


13.42 


15.97 


8 


2.19 


4.47 


6.84 


9.31 


11.85 


14.69 


17.42 



TABLE 10 



HOT WATER SUPPLY. 

Cylinder System. In the cylinder system thp 
principal difference from the tank system lies ix 
the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot watet 
lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not above 
them, as with the tank system. This being th<> 
case it is impossible to empty the reservoir un- 
knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water 
supply be shut off. 

Eeferring to Fig. 155, the flow-pipe proceeds 
from the extreme top of the waterback, and does 
not project through inside the waterback in the 
least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, 
it must be connected to the side or back of the 
waterback as close to the top as it can be got, but 
the top connection should always be used if in any 
way possible. From the waterback the flow-pipe 
proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths 
of the way up from the bottom. The pipe can 
enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, 
or it can come through lower down and be ex- 
tended up inside with a bend and short piece of 
pipe together without making two holes. 

The return pipe leaves the side of the boiler a& 

close to the oottom as possible, or it can come 

from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 

186 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



187 



the waterback and enters either through the top 
or the side, terminating half-way down with a 
saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and 
the return, must have a rise from the waterback 
to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet, 




Fig. 155. 



From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- 
pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 
feet from the boiler to its highest point. The 



188 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

highest point can be above the cold-water cistern 
or through the roof. 

The cold water supply to the system is a pipe 
direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must 
not be branched for any other purpose. 

It is of the highest importance that the cold 
water supply pipe should be of full size, and not 
choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- 
flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio 
with the down-flow of water through this pipe, 
less friction, therefore everything possible must 
be done to give the water full and free passage 
and lessen the friction. This is done by having 
the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, 
or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there 
be one, has a straight full way through it. The 
stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that 
the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- 
pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut 
the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee 
should be put on the cold water supply connec- 
tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold 
water over the bottom of the boiler. If this is not 
done the inflowing cold water will bore its way 
up through the hot water above, unless the pres- 
sure be quite low. 

An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- 
neath the boiler, but this cock must be provided 
with a loose key, so that onty an authorised per- 
son can withdraw the water from the boiler. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 189 

The draw-off pipes are all taken from the 
expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- 
fore be carried up by the best route to touch at 
the points where the faucets are, otherwise long 
single branches must be run. The expansion pipe, 
being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- 
lation in it. 

It must never be forgotten that, on opening a 
faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- 
ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. 
The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a 
new action takes place. Water will come up from 
the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There 
will also be water coming up the secondary re- 
turn, and the temperature of this will depend on 
whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 
156 then whatever water comes to the faucets will 
be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature 
of the issuing water falls it may be known that 
the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have 
been several points at which the secondary re- 
turn has been connected with bad results, notably 
at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- 
turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the 
boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- 
neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only 
one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 156. The 
point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of 
the boiler according to its size. The latter would 



190 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



be for a 100-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would 
have the connection 4 inches from the top. 

Tank System. The usual arrangement of this 
system of water heating apparatus is illustrated 



fcz 



'7 



>/ 



^ 



3 



Fig. 166. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



191 



in Fig. 157. The flow pipe should proceed from 
the extreme top or highest point of the water- 
back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- 
ject through to the inside of the waterback in 
the least degree. If it is impossible to connect 



fetor.- 

■m -Jl 










u= 












*-"" 


7 


\ j 






1 


-" 




rH 




ft. 


y 





I^ig. 157 



the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback 
it should be located in the side or back, but as 
close to the top as possible. From the waterback 
the flow pipe should proceed to the tank and ter- 



192 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

urinate in it about three-fourths of the way up, 
that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from 
the top. It may pass through the bottom and 
reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 
157, or it may enter the side at the required 
height. 

The return pipe should leave the bottom of the 
tank, being connected directly in the bottom or 
in the side of the tank near the bottom. It should 
never be more than an inch from the bottom. 
From the tank the return pipe should proceed 
directly to the waterback, and if entering the 
boiler through the top, should extend down- 
wards, three^fourths the height of the waterback. 

The draw-off pipes are taken from the flow pipe 
as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe 
should be carried in a direction which will bring 
it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead 
of this, the most common practice appears to be 
to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct 
route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- 
sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. 
There is no objection to the return pipe taking 
the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted 
to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, 
there would have to be long single-pipe branches, 
and the fault of these is that so much cold water 
has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not 
so much a fault at a bath, at which some cold 
water will probably be needed. At a lavatory 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



193 



basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the 
faucets being small and slow-running, and at no 
point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- 
ciated more than at this one. 




Fig. 158. 



Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- 
bination of the two systtaia pr&viowAf described. 



194 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



The tank system and the cylinder system both 
have good features which are retained in the cyl- 
inder-tank system, and also certain bad features 
which are eliminated in the combination system 



rM 



*Hj 



Fig. 169. 



which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- 
tem ensures a good flow of water from the high 
faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 195 

a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- 
cets that are near the top of the house. On the 
other hand, the cylinder system is safest where 
the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the 
cylinder— the reservoir of the apparatus— cannot 
be emptied. The object of the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem is therefore to ensure a good outflow at all 
taps by having a store of hot water above them, 
and to have a store of water which cannot be 
exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply 
fails. 

Fig. 158 illustrates this system of apparatus in 
outline, and the parts need no- general description 
more than that given already. As to the sizes of 
the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen- 
eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- 
city, and the two together should be no larger 
than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-gallon 
boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected 
on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the 
combined apparatus the boiler should be 25 gal- 
lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem illustrated in Fig. 158, the cold water supply 
is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- 
tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 159, the 
cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 



196 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


1 


0.017 


7 


0.118 


2 


0.034 


8 


0.135 


3 


0.051 


9 


0.152 


4 


0.068 


10 


0.169 


5 


0.085 


11 


0.186 


6 


0.101 


12 


0.203 



TA^LrE 11 



HOT WATER PLUMBING. 

As the drawings shown in the article on Hot 
Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of 
the different systems and are only intended to il- 
lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is 
involved in the heating of water for domestic use, 
further description and additional drawings are 
here given to illustrate the two systems of water 
heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder 
system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder 
system. 

In Fig. 160 is shown one of the simplest ar- 
rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for 
the successful heating of water for household use. 
The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are 
all plainly shown. In the boiler is a pipe extend- 
ing down from the top and connected with the 
cold water supply, which it discharges in the 
boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- 
tance down in the boiler which this pipe should 
extend depends upon the height that the pipe 
from the upper part of the water-back enters the 
boiler. The cold water supply should always en- 
ter the boiler at a considerable distance below 
the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the 
hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 

197 



198 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



The greater the distance, that the hot and cold 
water pipes are apart in the hoiler, the better will 
be the circulation and the less time it will take 
to heat a given amount of water. 

3s& 



J 




Fig. 160 

The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig. 
160 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor 
above that on which the boiler is located. If hot 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 199 




1 




y <«s 



ft 



j£=.i 



1 



»=^ 



*=* 







€• ■ Jl ln" ' 7—" T 1 ^ 



Fig. 161 



=*& 



b±r 



200 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

water is desired on the same floor a connection 
can be made in the pipe leading from the top of 
the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. 

Fig. 161 shows an arrangement of fixtures and 
piping to supply hot water on three floors by the 
pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to 
the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath 
tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a 
wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water 
supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold 
water connection to the kitchen sink, while the 
cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls 
on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of 
simplicity. 

Fig. 162 shows one of the simplest forms of the 
gravity-supply tank and cylinder systems, in 
which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- 
nections are all on the same floor. The cold water 
pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the 
case may be to the supply tank, where the supply 
of water is regulated by a ball float cock. An 
expansion pipe as shown should be provided in 
the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- 
ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 
163 a gravity-supply tank and cylinder system is 
shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to 
the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash 
bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is 
shown running up to the supply tank and also to 
the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



201 



to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading 
to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. 

It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler 
is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a 




Fig. 162 



supply of hot water on hand so that it may be 
drawn when required. By this arrangement hot 
water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 



202 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



tingnished in the stove, as it stores itself by the 
law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, 
and is forced out by cold water entering below 
and remaining there without mingling with or 

# 



L 



D"" 



t&*to i i 



} 



ft ft 




i 



Fig. 163 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 203 

cooling the hot water in the upper part of the 
boiler. It should be understood that the natural 
course of hot water, when confined in a boiler and 
depending for its motion on the difference be- 
tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- 
er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular 
or vertical direction. And consequently when 
the heating apparatus or pipes which have to 
convey the hot water from the water back to a 
boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in 
any position other than in a vertical position, 
friction is added which retards the flow of hot 
water just in proportion to the degree of angle 
from the vertical of the hot water pipes. 

A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also 
a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that 
there is something wrong, and which requires 
attention. These noises are produced by differ- 
ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the 
upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is 
connected to the boiler. 

This pipe should always have some elevation 
from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. 
The more elevation the better the water will cir- 
culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will 
make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- 
ous rise if possible, the entire length from the 
water-back to the boiler. 

Another cause of this noise comes from the 
water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scaler 



204 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

which partly stops the water from circulating 
Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from 
a bad circulation of water between the stove 
and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue 
very long without doing anything to improve it, 
it will grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
With the connections between the water-back in 
the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to 
be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- 
der these conditions, an explosion of the water- 
back, which may blow the stove to pieces and, 
perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 

There are two conditions of things that will 
cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, 
to have water in the water-back with its outlets 
or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
started in the stove. The fire will generate steam 
in the water-back, and, having no outlet through 
which the steam might escape, an explosion must 
take place. The second way through which the 
water-back could explode is to have no water 
in the kitchen boiler, with a good fire in the 
stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the 
water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler 
and water-back. Under these conditions steam 
would be generated faster than it could escape 
through the small pipe connections, and would 
naturally result in an explosion. 

The different ways of connecting a water-back 
on any water heating device to an ordinary 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



205 



kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by 
the conditions in each individual case. 



Hot Watcr^ 
Outlej. 



4 



in 

D 
-J 
U. 



& 






(Drain- 




| «(< 






or 

I 

o 

-I 

o 
a 



niXMtJ* uqv«u»^ 



^ 




& 



Fig. 164 



In connecting a gas-heated water device^ the 
connections should be made as shown in Fig. 



206 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



164, which is known as a top connection, the 
particular reason being that it is possible, with 
a connection of this kind, to heat small quanti- 




Fig. 165 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



207 



ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water 
can be drawn within five minutes after lighting 
the gas the great advantage being the economy of 
fuel and time. A gas-heated water device should 
always be connected to a flue. 




Fig. 166 

When connecting a kitchen boiler to a water- 
tack in a range, the connection should be made 
as shown in Fig. 165. As the range fire will 



208 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



probably be kept burning all day, the question of 
fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- 
vantage of a connection of this kind is that it 
gives a large body of water from which to draw 
at all times. 




Fig. 167 



Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, 
when connected to independent water heaters 
are shown in Figs. 166 and 167. 

Another device recently put on the market and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



209 



Fig. 168 




210 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

shown in Fig. 168, is a combination reservoir and 
heater. This heater is unique in construction of 
water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces 
are exposed very advantageously to the flame. 
The central water compartment being directly 
over the flame and the pipe which carries hot 
water to the top of the tank enables it to supply 
hot water within a very short time. The gas 
supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- 
matically decreases the flow of gas when water 
is heated and automatically increases the flow of 
gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the 
tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, 
which are independent of each other, and can be 
used separately or both at the same time, fur- 
nish the heating medium. The advantage of 
this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- 
sumption, is that it requires little space for the 
installation and a great saving in the piping. 
Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- 
vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and 
from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature 
of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown 
whereby the water can be heated with steam, in 
case it is installed, where steam is available. 

Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in 
Figs. 169, 170 and 171, show a set of plumber's 
tools. The name of the tool is given with each 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 211 



Blow Pipe 





Round Iron? 



Pot Hook 



> 



Copper Hatchet Bolt 



Copper Pointed Bolt- 



*!■ 



Solder Pot 



Ladle 




Torch 



Wiping Cloths 



Soil Cup. 





Tack Mould 



Tack Mould 



Tool Bags 






Fig. 161 



212 HOT WATER PLUMBING 



Hammer 




Cold Chisel 



Floor Chisel 



Gouge 



Saws 



Hack Saw, 



Compass Saw 



Calking Chisel 



Rasp 



File 



Basin Wrench 




~~l! 



Offset Calking Chisel 




Yarning Chisel 



Pig. 170 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



213 



illustration, making further information unneces- 
sary. 
A larger number of tools than those shown 



Bossing Stick 



Dresser 



Side Edge 



Chipping Knives 



Shave Hook. 



Tap Borer 



Turn |Pin 



Divider 



A 



Washer Cutter 





Bending Pin 



Drift Plug 



Fig. 171 



Grease Box 



will sometimes be necessary for special work, 
or work that has to be done under difficulties. 

Figs. 172 and 173 show two styles of plumber's 
blow-torches, and Figs. 174 and 175, two solder 



214 HOT WATEE PLUMBING 

pots. The air pressure is generated by means 
of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 
174, and by means of a small hand pump in the 
one shown in Fig. 175. 



, Fig. 172 

A rubber force cup for cleaning bathtubs, 
washbowls and sinks is shown in Fig. 176. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



215 




Pig. 173 



Fig. 174 





Pig. 175 



Fig. 176 



•>16 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that 
have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- 
trated in Fig. 177. 




Fig. 177 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 217 

Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains 
water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of 
sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer 
into the house, or to prevent the entrance 
through the house fixtures of gas and noxious 
odors that may be formed between the main 
trap and the house fixtures. The water seal of 
a trap should not be less than iy 2 to 2 inches. 

The seal of a trap may be broken in different 
ways, viz : by syphonage, evaporation, back pres- 
surage and momentum or the action of the waste 
itself as it may pass off with considerable force. 

A good trap should have a good seal, it 
should be non-syphonable, self -cleaning and have 
as few corners or places where dirt or refuse may 
collect as possible. 

The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are 
two forms most used. 

The back pressure or gas from the sewer will 
saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, 
therefore all traps should be back-vented from 
the sewer side of the syphon and at the highest 
point of the same. 

Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- 
cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the 
plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. 

Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by 
means of which a trap is supplied with air, to 
prevent the partial or total syphonage of the trap 
and also ventilate the plumbing system of the 
house. 



218 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 

Counter- vents from fixture traps should always 
be carried into the main air-pipe and higher than 
the top of the fixture or else directly through the 
roof. 

The counter-vent from a water closet should 
always be vented from the highest point of the 
syphon and never from a lower point where the 
flushing action of the closet would throw waste 
matter into the entrance of the counter-vent or 
at any point where the waste would be liable to 
settle in the vent-pipe. 

Caulking Joints. A ring of oakum is first 
forced into the joint, and then set with a caulking 
tool until hard. After the oakum is firmly caulked, 
an asbestos rope is placed around the top of the 
joint, leaving a small opening at the top for pour- 
ing the melted lead. The melted lead is then 
poured, and after cooling, firmly set down with 
the caulking tool, care being taken to thoroughly 
caulk the inner and outer edges of the lead circle. 
The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should be about 1 
inch deep. 



PROPERTIES OP WATER. 

A tasteless, transparent, inodorous, liquid, 
almost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- 
ing about one twenty-thousandth of its bulk, pos- 
sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- 
tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and 
twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is 
a compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, 
two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- 
gen. Water is the most powerful and universal 
solvent known. 

The gallon is the unit of measure for water. 
The unit of water pressure is the pound per 
square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 
cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and 
weighs about eight and one-third pounds, or sixty- 
two and one-third pounds per cubic foot, 

The above is figured at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- 
ature. 

The weight of a column of water of one inch 
area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, on 

.433X144=62.35 pounds per cubic foot. 

The pressure of still water, in pounds, per 
square inch, against the side of any pipe or vss- 

219 



220 PKOPERTIES OF WATEK 

sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- 
tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find 
the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- 
umn of water, multiply the height of the column 
in feet, by .433, approximately one foot of eleva- 
tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per 
square inch. 

The head is the vertical distance between the 
level surface of still water and the height in the 
pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a 
pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in 
pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- 
ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain 
the height water will rise, at any given pressure, 
divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is 
the height in feet. 

Example: The pressure gauge on a supply 
pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. 
To what height will water rise in the piping 
throughout the building? 

Answer: 25-^.433=57% feet. 

"While water will rise to this height, sufficient 
head should be provided to furnish a surplus head 
of about ten feet above the highest point of de- 
livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- 
charge. 

It is frequently desired to know what number 
of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- 
pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 221 

velocity of flow, the volume delivered by two 
pipes of a different size is proportionate to the 
square of their diameters, thus: A four-inch pipe 
will deliver the same volume as four two-inch 
pipes. 

Example: 

2 inchesX2 inches= 4 square inches. 
4 inches X 4 inches=16 square inches. 
16 inches-^-4 inches= 4 2-inch pipes. 

With the same head, however, the velocity be- 
ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume delivered 
varies about as the square root of the fifth power. 
Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 
two-inch pipes. 

Example: With the same head, ^how many 
two-inch pipes* will it take to equal one four-inch 
pipe? 

Solution: 
2 5 = 2X2X2X2X2 = 32 and the t/32 = 5.7 nearly. 

In other words, the decrease in loss by friction 
in the four-inch pipe, in comparison with the two- 
inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the 
actual square of their respective areas. 

Water boils or takes the form of vapor or steam 
at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of 
the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. 
Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of 
ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 



222 PEOPERTIBS OF WATEE 

mospheric pressure, and ice melts at the same 
temperature. The point of maximum density is 
reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that 
temperature occupies its smallest possible volume. 
If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and 
if heated, it expands. 

Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- 
ner with which it will form a lather with soap, 
the degree of hardness being based on the pres- 
ence and amount of lime and magnesia. The more 
lime and magnesia in a sample of water, the more 
soap a given volume of water will decompose. 
The standard soap measurement is the quantity 
required to precipitate or neutralize one grain 
of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended 
that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one 
soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, 
one is deducted from the total amount of soap 
measurements found to be necessary to produce a 
lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the 
number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- 
ness of the water sample. 

The impurities which occur in waters are of two 
kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- 
sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed 
by filtration. It is said that these impurities are 
held in suspension. 

Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are 
physical and are designated as those held in solu- 
tion. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 223 

Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- 
complished by aeration, that is, by exposing water 
to the action of the air, by passing air through it 
or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, 
protected from dust and other impurities of the 
air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- 
poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, 
which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up 
into small particles, and allow it to become sat- 
urated with air. 

This process, however, is of no practical use 
for actual purification. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to 80 lbs. 

One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils, in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 

224 



USEFUL INFORMATION 225 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires V/2 British Thermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
uits. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 



226 USEFUL INFORMATION 

surface, and the passage o± air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any- 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least oca the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of tho> 

surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 

Friction is greater comparatively, in small 
pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 



USEFUL INFORMATION 227 

in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



228 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Rule for finding the size of a pipe necessary 
to fill a number of smaller pipes. Suppose it is 
desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 2y 2 - and 4- 
inch pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches 
in length, the other 2% inches in length. From 
the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. 
The length of this line in inches will give the 
size of pipe necessary to fill the two smaller 
pipes —about 3*4 inches. From one end of this 
last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 
4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 
2-inch line to the end of the last line draw an- 
other line. Its length will represent the size of 
pipe necessary to fill a 2-, 2 1 /2- and 4-inch pipe. 
This may be continued as long as desired. 

Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- 
charged through a given orifice during a given 
length of time and under different heads, is as 
the square roots of the corresponding heights of 
the water in the reservoir above the surface of 
the orifice. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cv^Ae inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 229 

A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to the square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 

Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs . 036 pounds 

One IT. S. gallon weighs. . . 8.33 

One Imperial gallon " ... 10 . 00 " 

One U. S. gallon equals. . . .231.00 cubic inches 

One Imperial gallon " ... 277 . 274 " " 

One cubic foot of water 

equals 7.48 U. F. gallons 

Liquid Measure. t 

4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 



230 USEFUL INFORMATION 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches-, and the result by .34. 
To find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head which will produce a given 
velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- 
ameter and length: Multiply the square of the 
velocity, expressed in feet per second, by the 
length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- 
tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 
2,500. The final amount will give the head in 
teet. 

Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is 



USEFUL INFORMATION 231 

1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What 
head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 
feet per second? 

3X3=9; 13.9-H=3.475. 

9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 
37,530^2,500=15 ft. 

To find the velocity of water flowing through 
a horizontal straight pipe of given length and 
diameter, the head of water above the center of 
the pipe being known: Multiply the head in 
feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length 
of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by 
the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The 
square root of the quotient gives the velocity 
in feet per second. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the 
square of the largest diameter, add the square of 
the smallest diameter and multiply this by the 
height, and the result by 2,618. This will give 
the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided 
by 231 will give the number of gallons. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



232 USEFUL INFORMATION 

submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 x 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 x .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, 
when the diameter and thickness of the lead are 
known: Multiply the square of the outer diam- 
eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical 
inches, then multiply the square of the inner 
diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- 
tracting the product of the latter from that of 
the former. The remainder multiplied by the 
length gives the desired result. 

Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of 
lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and 
the inner diameter 9-16 inch. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 233 

The weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 foot 
long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. 

% X %=49-64=.765625. 

9-16x9-16=81-256=.316406. 

.765625 - .316406=.449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200=2,086 
lbs. 

Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
work into a strong mixture of potash, soda,, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1V 2 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots, with this mixture 1 , and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. "When wishing to ap- 
plv. the cement, melt and spread it on a, strip of 
strong cotton clotfi. 



234 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

To keep plaster of Paris from setting too 
quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- 
ing it to soak up the water without stirring, 
which would admit the air, and cause the plaster 
to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the 
plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- 
essary for some kinds of work, add to every 
quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common 
cooking soda, This will gain all the time that is 
needed. 

To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops 
of oil of clove. 

To make a cement that will hold when all 
others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of 
rubber and pitch. When wishing to use it, 
melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton 
cloth. 

Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be 



USEFUL INFORMATION • 235 

tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until 
the temperature rises to about blood heat, when 
it will be about right for pickling purposes. 

Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge-. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

To tin sheet copper after it has been well 
cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are 
any spots which the acid has failed to remove, 
scour with salt and sand. Then over a light 
charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- 
der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the 
other with a handful of flax, only going so fast 
as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows 
a yellowish color, it shows there is too much 
heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning 
should be done with as little heat as is neces- 
sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, 
rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. 

To give copper a red appearance as seen on 
bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 



236 USEFUL INFORMATION 

nib on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- 
ishing hammer. 

To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. 
It will be found very handy to have a stick of 
sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. 
After filing the heated copper bright, touch the 
copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward 
with a stick of solder. The solder will at once 
flow over the entire surface. In this there is but 
one danger, the too great heating of the copper, 
in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form 
a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little 
heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of 
great value in keeping the soldering copper in 
shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point 
with it. 

To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While 
Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- 
solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of 
a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from 
the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the 
zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of 
the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving 
the copper bright. 

TESTS FOR PURE WATER. 

Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless 
glass with the water. Look through it at some 
blank object. It should look colorless and free 



USEFUL INFORMATION 237 

from suspended matter. A muddy or turbid 
appearance indicates soluble organic matter or 
solid matter in suspension. 

Odor. Fill the bottle half full, cork it and 
leave it in a warm place for a few hours. If, 
when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- 
sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. 

Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- 
ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it 
should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical 
test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full 
of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean granu- 
lated or crushed loaf sugar, stop the bottle with 
glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the 
light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- 
eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or 
milky, it is unfit for domestic use. 



238 



PRACTICAL PLUMBINC 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 
and Cubes. 



Diameter 
in Inches. 



x 

% 

X 
X 

X 

X 
1 

IX 
IX 
IX 
IX 
IX 
IX 
IX 
2 

2X 
2X 
2X 
2X 
2X 
2X 
2X 
3 

SX 
SX 

sX 
sX 
sX 
sX 
sX 

4 



Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 



.3927 
.7854 
1.1781 
1.5708 
1.9635 
2.3562 
2.7489 
3.1416 
3.5343 
3.9270 
4.3197 
4.7124 
5.1051 
5.4978 
5.8905 
6.2832 
6.6759 
7.0686 
7.4613 
7.8540 
8.2467 
8.6394 
9.0321 
9.4248 
9.8175 
10.210 
10.602 
10!995 
11.388 
11.781 
12.173 
12.566 



Area in 
Square 
Inches. 



.0122 

.0490 

.1104 

1963 

.3068 

.4417 

.6013 

.7854 

' .9940 

1.2271 

1.4848 

1.7671 

2.0739 

2.4052 

2.7611 

3.1416 

3.5465 

3.9760 

4.4302 

4.9087 

5.4119 

5.9395 

6.4918 

7.0686 

7.6699 

8.2957 

8.9462 

9.6211 

10.320 

11.044 

11.793 

12.566 



Area in 
Square 
Feet. 



.0069 
.0084 
.0102 
.0122 
.0143 
.0166 
.0191 
.0225 
.0245 
.0275 
.0307 
.0340 
.0375 
.0411 
.0450 
.0490 
.0531 
.0575 
.0620 
.0668 
.0730 
.0767 
.0818 
.0879 



Square, 
in Inches. 



.0156 
.0625 
.14Q6 
.25 
.3906 
.5625 
.7656 
1. 

1.2656 
1.5625 
1.8906 
2.25 
2.6406 
3.0265 
3.5156 
4. 

4.5156 
5.0625 
5.6406 
6.25 
6.8906 
7.5625 
8.2656 
9. 

9.7656 
10.5625 
11.3906 
12.25 
13.1406 
14.0625 
15.0156 
16. 



Cube, 
in Inches. 



.00195 

.01563 

.05273 

.125 

.24414 

.42138 

.66992 



,42383 
,95313 
,59961 
3.375 
4.291 
5.3593 
6.5918 
8. 

9.5957 
11.3906 
13.3965 
15.625 
18.0879 
20.7969 
23.7637 
27. 

30.5176 
34.3281 
38.4434 
42.875 
47.634 
52.734 
58.185 
64. 



TABLiiii 1* 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



239 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 

Square 

Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


4% 


12.959 


13.364 


.0935 


17.0156 


70.1895 


4% 


13.351 


14.186 


.0993 


18.0625 


76.7656 


4% 


13.744 


15.033 


.1052 


19.1406 


83.7402 


4% 


14.137 


15.904 


.1113 


20.25 


91.125 


4% 


14.529 


16.800 


.1176 


21.3906 


98.9316 


4% 


14.922 


17.720 


.1240 


22.5625 


107.1719 


4% 


15.315 


18.665 


.1306 


23.7656 


115.8574 


5 


15.708 


19.635 


.1374 


25. 


125. 


5% 


16.100 


20.629 


.1444 


26.2656 


134.6113 


5X 


16.493 


21.647 


.1515 


27.5625 


144.7031 


5% 


16.886 


22.690 


.1588 


28.8906 


155.2871 


5% 


17.278 


23.758 


.1663 


30.25 


166.375 


5% 


17.671 


24.850 


.1739 


31.6406 


177.9785 


5% 


18.064 


25.967 


.1817 


33.0625 


190.1094 


5% 


18.457 


27.108 


.1897 


34.5186 


202.7793 


6. 


18.849 


28.274 


.1979 


36. 


216. 


6% 


19.242 


29.464 


.2062 


37.5156 


229.7832 


6>i 


19.635 


30.679 


.2147 


39.0625 


244.1406 


6% 


20.027 


3J.919 


.2234 


40.6406 


259.084 


6K 


20.420 


33.183 


.2322 


42.25 


274.625 


6% 


20.813 


34.471 


.2412 


43.8906 


290.7754 


6% 


21.205 


35.784 


.2504 


45.5625 


307.5469 


6,V 


21.598 


37.122 


.2598 


47.2656 


324.9512 


7 


21.991 


38.484 


.2693 


49. 


343. 


7% 


22.383 


39.871 


.2791 


50.7656 


361.7051 


7% 


22.776 


41.282 


.2889 ' 


52.5625 


381.0781 


7% 


23.169 


42.718 


.2990 


54.3906 


401.1309 


7% 


23.562 


44.178 


.3092 


56.25 


421.879 


7% 


23.954 


45.663 


.3196 


58.1406 


443.3223 


7% 


24.347 


47.173 


.3299 


60.0625 


465.4844 


7% 


24.740 


48.707 


.3409 


62.0156 


488.3730 


8 


25.132- 


50.265 


.3518 


64. 


512. 



TABLE 12— Continued 



240 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 
and Cubes. 



Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


8% 


25.515 


51.848 


.3629 


66.0156 


536.3770 


8% 


25.918 


53.456 


.3741 


68,0625 


561.5156 


8% 


26.310 


55.088 


.3856 


70.1406 


587.4277 


8% 


26.703 


56.745 


.3972 


72.25 


614.125 


8% 


27.096 


58.426 


.4089 


74.3906 


641.6191 


8% 


27.489 


60.132 


.4209 


76.5625 


669.9219 


8% 


27.881 


61.862 


.4330 


78.7656 


699.0449 


9 


28.274 


63.617 


.4453 


81. 


729. 


9% 


28.667 


65.396 


.4577 


83.2656 


759.7988 


9% 


29.059 


67.200 


.4704 


85.5625 


791.4531 


9% 


29.452 


69.029 


.4832 


87.8906 


823.9746 


9% 


29.845 


70.882 


.4961 


90.25 


857.375 


9% 


30.237 


72.759 


.5093 


92.6406 


891.666 


9% 


30.630 


74.662 


.5226 


95.0625 


926.8594 


9% 


31.023 


76.588. 


.5361 


97.5156 


962.0968 


10 


31.416 


78.540 


.5497 


100. 


1000. 


10% 


31.808 


80.515 


.5636 


102.5156 


1037.9707 


10% 


32.201 


82.516 


.5776 


105.0625 


1076.8906 


10% 


32.594 


84.540 


.5917 


107.6406 


1116.7715 


10% 


32.986 


86.590 


.6061 


110.25 


1157.625 


10% 


33.379 


88.664 


.6206 


112.8906 


1199.4629 


10% 


33.772 


90.762 


.6353 


115.5625 


1242.2969 


10% 


34.164 


92.885 


.6499 


118.2656 


1286.1387 


11 


34.557 


95.033 


.6652 


121. 


1331. 


11% 


34.950 


97.205 


.6804 


123.7656 


1376.8926 


11% 


35.343 


99.402 


.6958 


126.5625 


1423.8281 


11% 


35.735 


101.623 


.7143 


129.3906 


1471.8184 


11% 


36.128 


103.869 


.7270 


132.25 


1520.875 


11% 


36.521 


106.139 


.7429 


135.1406 


1571.0098 


11% 


36.913 


108.434 


.7590 


138.0625 


1622.234 


11% 


37.306 


110.753 


.7752 


141.0155 


1674.5605 


12 


37.699 


113.097 


.7916 


144. 


1728. 



TABLE 12 — Continued 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 

The following extracts from the 1914 Plumbing 
Code of the City of Chicago, will, it is believed, 
be of material assistance to the student. Of course 
the rules and regulations controlling plumbing 
work in various cities differ more or less, accord- 
ing to conditions, but the bulk of the rules herein 
given will serve as a reliable guide to the plumber 
in his work, regardless of the locality in which 
the work is to be performed, and it is for this pur- 
pose that they are here inserted. 

PLUMBING. 

Permit for use of water.] All applications for 
permits for the introduction or use of water sup- 
plied by the city shall be made in writing upon 
printed forms furnished by the department of pub- 
lic works, the blanks to be specifically and prop- 
erly filled in and signed by the owner or duly au- 
thorized agent of the owner, and no work what- 
ever shall be done in the street, or outside a build- 
ing, by any plumber or other person for the pur- 
pose of making any connection to or with any city 
water main or pipe until after the issuance of such 
permit. This restriction shall not prevent any 
person from rendering assistance in case of acci- 
dent to water pipes occurring at night, or at any 
time requiring immediate action. In case of any 

241 



242 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

such accident prompt report thereof shall be made 
to the department of public works by the person 
rendering such assistance. 

Tapping street main.] No person except the 
tappers employed by the department of public 
works shall be permitted under any circumstances 
to tap any street main or insert stop-cocks or fer- 
rules therein. All service cocks or ferrules must 
be inserted at or near the top of the street main, 
and not in any case nearer than six inches from 
the bell of the pipe. The size of the cock to be in- 
serted shall be that specified in the permit. 

Lead pipe— kind permitted— weight required.] 
No lead pipe shall be used in any work done under 
the authority of a license or permit issued by the 
city, except such as is known to the trade as 
' i strong, ' ' and every lead pipe so used must weigh 
as follows: 

Half-inch internal diameter 1% pounds per lineal foot, 

Five-eighths inch internal diameter. . .2% " 

Three-fourths inch " " ...3 " 

One inch " " . . .4 

One and one-fourth in. internal diam..4% " 

One and one-half in. " " ..6 " 

One and three-fourths in. " " ..6% " 

Two inches " " ..8 " 

No pipe shall be used for the purpose of street 
service of a different material or size from that 
herein specified, except by special permit, issued 
by the commissioner of public works. 

Service pipe— joints.] All service pipes lead- 
ing from street mains to the building line shall as 
far as practicable be laid in the ground to a depth 
of not less than five feet, and every such pipe 
shall be laid in such manner and be of such sur- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 243 

plus length as to prevent breakage or rupture by 
settlement, and all joints in such pipes shall be of 
the kind termed "plumber or wiped joints." The 
connections of pipe by the so-called "cup-joint" 
is prohibited. 

Stop-cocks.] Every service pipe shall be pro- 
vided with a stop-cock for each consumer, easily 
accessible, placed beyond damage by frost and so 
situated that the water can be conveniently shut 
off and drained from the pipes. 

Stop-cock— location— shutoff box.] Such stop- 
cocks, unless otherwise specially permitted, shall 
be connected to service pipes within the sidewalk 
at or near the curb line of the same, and be in- 
closed in and protected by a cast-iron box with a 
cover having the letter "W" of suitable size cast 
thereon; such iron box shall be of form and dimen- 
sions satisfactory to the commissioner of public 
works and shall extend from service pipe to sur- 
face of sidewalk, and be of proper size to admit a 
stop key for operating the stop-cock. 

Single tap for several buildings— independent 
cocks required.] Whenever two or more distinct 
buildings or premises are to be supplied by means 
of branch or sub-service pipes supplied by a single 
tap in the street main, each branch shall be inde- 
pendently arranged with stop-cock and box on 
the curb line in the manner above described. All 
cocks used at the sidewalks by plumbers shall be 
of the kind known as * ' round water way. ' 9 

Opening of streets— permit— deposit.] Before 
filling any trench the service cock in the street 



244 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

main shall be covered with a suitable cast-iron box 
furnished by the city; the earth shall be well 
rammed under the main to a level with the top 
thereof; from thence the trench shall be filled in 
layers of not more than twelve inches in depth, 
and each layer thoroughly rammed or puddled to 
prevent settlement. This work together with the 
replacing of sidewalks, ballast and paving shall be 
done in all cases by the city. A sufficient sum of 
money shall be deposited with the city before the 
issuance of the permit for opening the street, to 
cover this expense. 

No permit shall be granted for the opening of 
any paved street for the tapping of mains or lay- 
ing of service pipes, when the ground is frozen to 
a depth of twelve inches or more, except when in 
the opinion of the commissioner of public works 
there is a sufficient emergency to justify it. 

High pressure steam boiler— supply tank re- 
quired.] All persons are prohibited from connect- 
ing pipes whereby high pressure steam boilers 
may be supplied with water direct from city water 
mains. All such boilers shall be provided with a 
tank or other receptacle of sufficient capacity to 
hold at least six hours' supply of water, which 
may be used in case of a pipe district being shut 
off for the repair of water mains or for the making 
of connections or extensions. In such cases the 
city will not be responsible for a lack of water for 
steam boilers, or for any purpose. 

New plumbing— repairs— pipes and traps to be 
exposed till after tests.] In all buildings here- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 245 

after erected in the city, both public and private, 
and in all buildings already built or erected where- 
in any plumbing is installed or wherein any sewer- 
connected pipe shall be repaired or changed, ex- 
cept for minor repairs, on the sewer side of the 
trap, the drain, soil, rainwater, when rainwater 
pipes are within building, waste pipes, or any 
other pipe or pipes connected directly or indirect- 
ly to any drain, soil or waste pipe, and all traps, 
shall be placed within buildings and exposed to 
view for ready inspection and test, and shall re- 
main so exposed until approved by the commis- 
sioner of health. In no case shall a trap be inac- 
cessible at any time. 

Metal connections — requirements — tests — 
tile sewers above ground prohibited.] All soil or 
waste pipes shall be connected to the tile sewer, 
if a tile sewer is laid within the building, and if 
the connection is made above the ground or floor, 
by a suitable metal connection, which shall make 
an air-tight and water-tight joint, without the use 
of cement, mortar, putty or other like material, 
and which can and shall be tested with water when 
in place, such metal connections shall be in view 
at the time of final inspection. 

The entire fitting or piece which is used to con- 
nect the iron soil or waste pipe to the tile sewer 
shall be regarded as the metal connection. Metal 
connections which can be removed from the sewer 
and soil or waste pipes, after once in place with- 
out removing a portion of the iron soil or waste 
pipe, are prohibited. No such metal connection 



246 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

shall be used which has not been submitted to and 
tested and approved by the chief sanitary inspec- 
tor and the commissioner of health. No tile sewer 
shall be used above the ground or cement floor or 
where a cement joint is exposed to the air. One 
of each such approved types of metal connections 
shall be kept in the sanitary bureau of the depart- 
ment of health. 

Connections outside buildings and under 
ground.] Outside of the building and under 
ground the connection between the soil or waste 
pipe and the vitrified tile sewer shall be thorough- 
ly made with live Portland cement mortar, made 
with one part cement and two parts clean, sharp 
sand. 

An arched or other proper opening shall be pro- 
vided in the wall for the house drain to prevent 
damage by settlement. The opening around the 
house drain may be filled with pure refined as- 
phaltum. 

Drains connected with sewers— sizes— connec- 
tions must be made by plumber.] It shall be the 
duty of every person or corporation connecting or 
causing to be connected any drain, soil pipe or 
passage with any sewer from any building, struc- 
ture or premises, to cause such drain, soil pipe, 
passage or connection to be at all times adequate 
for its purpose and of such size and dimensions 
as to convey and allow freely to pass, whatever 
may properly enter the same. 

All connections between metal pipes and be- 
tween metal pipe and tile sewers shall be made by 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 247 

a licensed plumber and in such manner as the 
commissioner of health shall direct. 

Separate drainage for every building— excep- 
tion.] Every building shall be separately and in- 
dependently connected with a public or private 
sewer, when there is any such sewer in the street 
adjoining such building. 

The entire plumbing and drainage system of 
every building shall be entirely separate and in- 
dependent from that of any other building, ex- 
cept where there are two buildings on one lot, one 
in the rear of the other. If there is no sewer in 
the alley to which the rear building can connect, 
the sewer of the first building may be extended to 
serve such rear building. 

Drainage of kitchen slops, etc.— water supply.] 
All connections with sewers or drains used for 
the purpose of carrying off animal refuse from 
water-closets or otherwise, and slop of kitchens, 
shall have fixtures for a sufficiency of water to be 
so applied as to properly carry off such matters. 

Soil pipe— size— increaser.] Every water closet 
located within any building shall waste into a pipe 
not less than four inches in diameter. Such pipe 
shall be increased below the roof line as herein- 
after provided and shall be carried through and 
above the roof. 

Definition of terms.] In this article the term 
"main soil pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving 
the discharge of one or more water closets, with 
or without other fixtures, and extending through 
the roof. 



248 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

The term "branch soil pipe" is applied to any 
pipe receiving the discharge from one or more 
water closets and with or without other fixtures 
and leading towards and connecting with the main 
soil pipe, but not necessarily extending through 
the roof. 

The term "waste pipe" is applied to any pipe 
receiving the discharge from any fixture or fix- 
tures other than water closets. 

The term "house drain" is applied to the pipe 
within any building which receives the total dis- 
charge from any fixture or sets of fixtures, and 
may or may not include rain water, and which 
conducts or carries the same to the house sewer. 
The house drain, when rain water is allowed to 
discharge into it, shall be not less than six inches 
internal diameter. 

The term "house sewer" is applied to the tile 
sewer, which shall be not less than six inches in- 
ternal diameter, and which begins outside of the 
wall of a building and connects the house drain 
with the public sewer in the street. 

The term "main vent" is applied to the ver- 
tical line of air pipe running through two or more 
floors to which the vent or revent pipes from the 
various floors are connected. 

The term "vent pipe" is applied to any pipe 
provided to ventilate a system of piping, and to 
which the revents are connected. 

The term "revent pipe" is applied to any pipe 
used to prevent trap siphonage and back pressure. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 



249 



The term "soil vent" or "waste vent" is ap- 
plied to that part of the main soil pipe or waste 
pipe which is above the highest installed fixture 
waste connection and extends through the roof. 

When sizes of pipes are specified the internal 
diameters of the pipes are meant. 

Iron pipes— quality— weights.] All soil, waste 
and vent pipes, except as hereinafter specified for 
lead branches and brass pipes, shall be either ex- 
tra heavy cast-iron pipe coated with tar or as- 
phaltum, or standard galvanized wrought iron 
pipe; provided, that wrought iron pipe coated 
with tar or asphaltum may be used for soil and 
waste pipes, but not for soil or waste vent nor 
for vent or revent pipes. All pipes shall be sound 
and free from holes, cracks, or defects of any 
kind. 

The following weights per lineal foot will be 
accepted as complying with this chapter as to 
weight of extra heavy cast-iron pipe: 

Diameter 

2 inches 5^ pounds per lineal foot 



3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 

10 
12 



9V 2 
13 
17 
20 
27 

33i/ 2 
45 
54 



Extra heavy cast-iron pipe shall have the mak- 



250 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



er's name and the weight per foot clearly cast 
upon each section thereof. 

The following weights per lineal foot are re- 
quired for standard wrought iron pipe, galvan- 
ized, or tar-coated pipe: 
Diameter 

iy 2 inches 2.68 pounds per lineal foot. 



2 


3.61 ' 


2% « 


' 5.74 ' 


3 


' 7.54 ' 


3y 2 ' 


' 9.00 ' 


4 


' 10.66 « 


4y 2 ' 


..... 12.49 ' 


5 


1 14.50 ' 


6 


' 18.76 « 


7 


< 23.27 « 


8 


' 28.18 * 


9 


' 33.70 ' 


10 


« 40.00 « 



Fittings— quality— cleanout fittings.] All fit- 
tings used for soil or waste pipe, except as herein- 
after specified, shall be either extra heavy tar or 
asphaltum-coated fittings or extra heavy galvan- 
ized, cast or malleable iron, recessed and threaded 
drainage fittings. The burr formed by cutting 
the wrought iron pipe shall be carefully reamed 
out. Proper sized cleanout fittings shall be in- 
stalled at each ninety degree intersection of soil 
or waste pipe. 

Cleanouts— tapping pipes.] On soil or waste 
pipes four inches or more in diameter heavy brass 
cleanouts, not less' than four inches in diameter, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 251 

shall be used. Where iron drain, soil, waste or 
vent pipes are drilled and tapped, brass plugs or 
brass soldering nipples shall be used. 

Pipe joints to be filled.] All joints on cast-iron 
soil, waste or drain pipes and rain water leaders 
shall be so filled with picked oakum and molten 
lead and hand calked as to make them air and 
water-tight. The quantity of lead used shall be 
twelve ounces of fine soft lead for each inch in 
the diameter of the pipe. 

Vertical lines of pipes— floor rests.] Vertical 
lines of soil, waste or other pipes, and rain water 
pipes when within buildings, shall be provided 
with floor rests at intervals of every second floor. 

Pipe supports— pipe hooks prohibited.] The foot 
of every vertical soil, rain or waste pipe shall be 
adequately supported by brick, stone or concrete 
piers properly constructed by the use of cement 
mortar or cement concrete, or shall be otherwise 
equally well supported. Pipes under the basement 
floor or in the ground shall be properly laid, grad- 
ed and supported. Pipes above the floor shall 
either be adequately supported or suspended. 

The use of pipe hooks for supporting pipes is 
prohibited. At the foot of each soil or waste pipe 
shall be placed a cleanout fitting, which shall be 
accessible at all times. 

Prohibited fittings.] No double hub or straight 
crosses shall be used on horizontal or vertical 
lines. The use of bands, saddles and sleeves is 
prohibited. 

Buildings subject to vibrations— calked joints 



252 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

prohibited.] Pipes with calked joints shall not be 
installed in buildings subject to vibrations from 
operating machinery or subject to other causes 
likely to loosen such calked joints. 

Lead pipe— quality— not to extend within par- 
titions.] Lead pipe of a quality equal to " extra 
light" shall be used for water-closet bends and as 
branches for vent, revent and waste pipe connec- 
tions. 

Lead pipe used for vent or revent connections 
shall not extend into or be used within partitions. 

Lead pipe connections— wiped joints— brass 
pipes.] All connections between lead and metal 
pipes shall be made by heavy brass solder nip- 
ples, or heavy brass or combination ferrules which 
have been approved by the department of health. 
All solder connections shall be regulation wiped 
joints. If brass pipe is used it shall be drawn 
tubing of No. 18 B. and S. gauge. 

Straight tees prohibited.] Straight tees for soil 
or waste pipes shall not be used. 

Chimney ventilation of soil or waste pipes pro- 
hibited.] No brick, sheet metal, earthenware or 
chimney flue shall be used for a sewer ventilator 
or to ventilate any trap, soil, waste or other sew- 
er-connected pipe or opening. 

Iron pipe— where used.] Every soil, revent, 
vent and waste pipe shall be of iron, except as is 
specified herein for lead or brass pipe. 

Vertical pipes through roof— increased how.] 
The vertical soil, waste or vent pipes (where the 
vent or continuous waste pipe is not reconnected 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 253 

to a soil, waste or vent pipe below the roof) shall 
extend through and above the roof at least eight 
inches and have a diameter of at least one inch 
greater than that of the pipe proper; but in no 
case shall it be less than four inches in diameter 
through and above the roof. 

The increasers shall extend at least one foot be- 
low the roof. No cap or cowl shall be affixed to 
the top of any such pipe or pipes. 

Pipes above main building— nuisance,] Soil, 
waste and vent pipes shall be carried above the 
roof of the main building when otherwise they 
would open within fifteen feet of the windows or 
doors of such or adjoining buildings, and shall 
be not less than six feet from any ventilator or 
chimney opening of such or adjoining building 
or buildings; nor shall they be located so as to 
be a nuisance to the occupants of any building. 

Soil and waste pipes to be extended— when.] 
Except in office buildings and factories, branches 
of soil or waste pipes of twenty feet or more in 
length shall be extended full size, increased and 
carried through and above the roof. Branches of 
waste pipes less than twenty feet in length shall 
be either carried full size and increased and car- 
ried through and above roof or returned full size 
to the main vent pipe. 

Sizes of vent pipes.] Vent pipes into which the 
revent pipe of rows of fixtures are connected shall 
not be less than one and one-half inches in diam- 
eter for not to exceed three plumbing fixtures 
other than sink, urinal or water closets. For a 



254 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

greater number of such fixtures the vent pipe 
shall be at least two inches in diameter. 

Where the vents from water closets and other 
plumbing fixtures are connected into the same 
vent pipe, the size of the vent pipe shall be at 
least two inches in diameter from the main vent 
pipe to the point of connection to the vent of the 
other fixtures not requiring a two-inch revent. 

Ejectors— sizes of vent pipes.] The soil or 
waste pipe leading to an ejector or other appli- 
ance for raising sewage or other waste matter to 
the street sewer, shall, where a water closet or 
closets are installed, be ventilated by a vent pipe 
not less than four inches in diameter. "Where fix- 
tures other than water closets are installed the 
waste pipe shall be ventilated by a vent pipe of 
the same diameter as the waste pipe. Soil vents* 
vents and revents for ejectors shall be installed 
according to the provisions! of this chapter gov- 
erning soil, waste, vent and revent pipes. 

Horizontal waste pipes prohibited— amount of 
pitch.] Horizontal soil or waste pipes are pro- 
hibited. In all possible cases the pitch shall be 
one-fourth of an inch to the foot, making the 
grade in the direction of the outflow. 

Drainage and vent fittings— prohibited vents.] 
Where rows of fixtures are placed in line where 
galvanized wrought iron pipe is used for vents or 
revents, galvanized iron, malleable or cast-iron 
fittings or cast iron drainage fittings shall be used. 

All vent fittings shall be either galvanized, 
tarred or asphaltum coated. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 255 

Horizontal vent pipes unless practical shall not 
be used. Lines of soil, waste, or vent pipes shall 
be run in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. 
Trapped or sagged, or drops in, vents or revents 
are prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side 
of any trap shall connect to any sewer, vent pipe 
or soil or waste pipe. 

Continuous vents— ventilation of traps— crown 
venting prohibited.] Trap revents shall be con- 
tinuous where possible. Where the vent or revent 
pipes are continuous and traps are ventilated 
through the waste fitting, the center of the out- 
let of such fitting shall not be set below the water 
seal of the trap; and the trap shall not be more 
than three feet from the waste fitting. 

No crown venting shall be permitted. 

Size of soil and waste pipes.] The least diam- 
eter of soil pipe permitted is four inches. A ver- 
tical waste pipe into which a kitchen sink or 
sinks discharge shall be two inches in diameter, 
and at least three inches in diameter if receiving 
the waste of five or more floors, and shall have 
not less than one and one-half inch branches. 

Trap prohibited— where.] There shall be no 
traps at the foot .of soil or waste pipes, nor shall 
there be any trap upon the house drain or house 
sewer. 

This section shall not prohibit the use of traps 
at the foot of rain water leaders or upon drains 
or sewers used exclusively for conducting rain 
water to a public sewer. 

Trap revents— concealed partitions.] Every 



256 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

water-closet, urinal, sink, basin, bath, and every 
laundry tub or set of laundry tubs, or any other 
plumbing fixtures shall be effectively and sepa- 
rately trapped and revented, except as hereinafter 
provided for anti-siphon traps. 

All traps shall be protected from siphonage by 
special vent or revent pipes, except where anti- 
siphon traps are permitted. Such revented trap 
shall not depend upon any concealed partition for 
its water seal. 

Connected wastes.] A connected waste pipe re- 
ceiving the discharge of not more than two bas- 
ins, set in line, may waste into a single trap, which 
shall not be more than two feet from the waste 
outlet of one of the fixtures. 

Floor washes— prohibited traps— back water 
valve.] When floor washes are connected it shall 
be by means of a deep seal trap. Bell traps and 
cast-iron S. and P. traps having covers over hand 
holes on the sewer side of the trap, held in place 
by lugs or bolts, are prohibited. Where a floor 
drain is placed in a basement, it shall be protect- 
ed from back sewage by means of some suitable 
and approved back water valve or stop. Covered 
floor gutters are prohibited. 

Bath tub drum trap— revent.] Each bath tub 
shall be provided with a drum trap. Traps on 
bath tubs shall be placed in such a manner that 
the cleanout will be in plain view and above the 
floor. The drum trap shall be revented through 
either a "TY," a "Y," or a drainage fitting. 

Traps— placing of— water seaL] Traps shall 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 257 

be placed as near to the fixtures as possible, and 
in no case shall a trap be more than two feet from 
the waste outlet of its fixture. 

All traps shall have at least a one and one-half 
inch water seal and they shall be set true with 
respect to their water level. 

Waste pipe connection with closet bend, etc., 
prohibited— exception.] In no case shall a waste 
pipe from any fixture be connected with any wa- 
ter-closet trap, lead bend, vent or re vent connec- 
tion for same, except that a waste connection may 
be made to a lead bend in old or repaired work. 

Water-closet revent— size.] Water-closets when 
placed within buildings shall have two-inch re- 
vents for each water-closet trap, except as here- 
inafter provided. 

Sizes of vent pipes— revents.] The main vent 
pipe for traps of water-closets in buildings four 
stories or under shall be at least two inches in 
diameter and have two-inch revents, except that 
revents for the traps of other plumbing fixtures 
may be the same diameter as waste traps. In 
buildings more than four stories high and not 
more than six stories high, the main vent pipes 
for water-closets with or without other plumbing 
fixtures shall be at least two and one-half inches 
in diameter. In buildings more than six stories 
high and not to exceed eighteen stories, the main 
vent pipes for water-closets with or without other 
plumbing fixtures shall be at least three inches 
in diameter. In buildings more than eighteen 
stories high the main vent pipe for water-closets 



258 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

with or without other fixtures shall be at least 
four inches in diameter. The main vent pipe for 
other fixtures than water-closets in buildings four 
stories and under shall be at least two inches in 
diameter. In buildings more than four stories 
high and not more than eight stories high the 
main vent pipes shall be at least two and one-half 
inches in diameter. In buildings more than eight 
stories high the main vent pipe shall be at least 
three inches in diameter, except that the diameter 
of the vent pipe may be reduced to two and one- 
half inches for the six lower stories; provided, 
that where the waste pipe for fixtures other than 
water-closets exceeds three inches in diameter the 
main vent pipe shall be at least three inches in 
diameter. The size of revent to traps of plumbing 
fixtures other than water-closets shall be at least 
the same size as waste to traps. 

Vents— size of for twelve fixtures.] Where 
more than twelve closets are installed on any floor 
the vent pipe for the same shall be at least three 
inches in diameter with two-inch revents for traps. 

For purposes of reventing, any four fixtures 
other than water-closets (where the same are 
placed on one floor) shall be taken as equal to 
one water-closet. This is to apply where water- 
closets are revented through the same vent pipe. 

Vents in residences.] Vent pipes for water- 
closets in residences shall be two inches in diam- 
eter with same size branches, and for other fix- 
tures not less than one and one-half inches in 
diameter with branches the ^ame size as wa^tfe and 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 259 

trap; except that the vent pipe for a kitchen sink 
shall be two inches in diameter. 

Sizes of waste pipes in buildings over four 
stories in height.] Where fixtures other than wa- 
ter-closets are installed. in a building more than* 
four stories and basement or cellar high, having 
no soil pipe from ground in building to and 
through roof, and where the total number of fix- 
tures wasting into one pipe exceeds six, the same 
shall waste into at least a two and one-half inch 
pipe, which shall be carried through the roof; ex- 
cept that where a battery of urinals and no water- 
closets are installed in any building (where a 
three-inch waste pipe is required) the same shall 
be carried at least three inches in diameter from 
the ground in the building up and through the 
roof. 

Sizes of waste pipes in buildings four stories 
in height and under.] In buildings of four stories 
and under, where no water-closet is installed and 
where no sewer-connected soil pipe is carried from 
ground in building to roof, the fixtures if six or 
more in number shall waste into a pipe at least 
two and one-half inches in diameter, which shall 
be carried through the roof. 

Where a smaller number of fixtures is installed 
the main waste pipe shall be two inches in diam- 
eter and carried through the roof, except that 
where a battery of urinals having a three-inch 
waste pipe is installed the waste pipe shall be 
carried at least three inches in diameter from the 
ground in the building up and through the roof. 



260 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Vents reconnected— connections prohibited with 
floors below.] All vents shall be either run sep- 
arately through the roof or be reconnected to an 
increaser twelve inches below the roof, or they 
may be reconnected to the soil vent or main vent 
pipe not less than three feet above the highest 
floor on which fixtures are placed; provided, that 
no fixture or fixtures shall be placed on any floor 
or floors above and connected to the soil, waste, 
vent or revent pipes from the fixtures on floors 
below; nor shall any fitting or fittings for future 
connections be, placed in any soil or waste pipe 
above the point of revent connection. Where fix- 
tures are afterwards installed on other floors the 
vent and revent pipes of the fixtures already in- 
stalled shall be rearranged to conform to the pro- 
visions of this chapter. Reconnections will not be 
permitted where said vent pipes run through more 
than five floors. 

Length of horizontal vents.] Except in office 
buildings and in factories, the vent pipes from 
any fixture or fixtures reconnected as hereinbefore 
provided, shall not span a horizontal distance to 
exceed twenty feet in length. In office buildings 
and factories this distance shall not exceed forty 
feet. 

Vent pipe increased.] Where a vent pipe is 
carried independently through the roof it shall be 
increased as provided for in preceding sections. 

Prohibited use for revents, etc.] No trap, re- 
vent or vent shall be used as a waste or soil pipe. 

Revents for adjoining fixtures.] Where bath 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 261 

rooms are located on opposite sides of a wall and 
directly opposite each other and on the same floor 
in any building and have a common soil or waste 
pipe in the same separating wall, the revents from 
fixtures in either or both of such bath rooms may 
connect into the same pipe. 

Where two plumbing fixtures, other than water 
closets, waste into a double "Y" or double "TY" 
fitting, a single proper revent connected at or 
near the junction of the two waste lines forming 
a part of the fitting will be permitted. 

Safe wastes.] All lead or other safes where 
necessary under fixtures shall be drained by a 
special pipe, the same to discharge into an open 
water supplied sink or into a deep seal trap, and 
in no case shall the safe be connected with any 
waste, soil or drain pipe or sewer. The ends of 
safe waste pipes shall be covered by flap valves. 

Overflow pipes— how connected.] Overflow pipes 
from fixtures shall be in each case connected on 
the inlet side of the trap. 

Refrigerator wastes— sizes— traps.] The waste 
pipe from a refrigerator or ice box shall not be 
directly connected with any soil, rain or waste 
pipe or with the drain or sewer, or discharge upon 
the ground. It shall discharge into an open water 
supplied sink or over a deep sealed trap and shall 
be as short as possible and disconnected from the 
refrigerator or ice box by at least four inches ; and 
where refrigerators or ice boxes are placed in 
buildings and upon two or more floors, the waste 
and vent pipe thereof shall be continuous and shall 



262 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

run through the roof and in no case shall it open 
within six feet of an open soil or vent pipe. 

The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for 
two floors or less shall be at least one and one- 
half inches, and two inches for three floors and 
over and under five floors, and two and one-half 
inches for five floors and over. Each refrigera- 
tor or ice box shall be provided with a suitable 
trap with an accessible trap screw or cleanout. 
Such trap shall be placed in the one and one-half 
inch waste pipe and shall be near the refrigerator 
or ice box. Such traps need not be separately 
revented. 

House boilers— sediment pipes.] The sediment 
pipe from house boilers shall not be connected 
into the sewer side of any trap nor directly con- 
nected into any soil or waste pipe or drain. 

Water-closets— flush tanks— purity of water.] 
All water-closets and urinals within any building 
shall be supplied from special tanks or approved 
automatically flushing valves having flush pipes 
at least one and one-quarter inches in diameter. 
The water from such tanks or cisterns shall not 
be used for any other purpose. The purity of 
such water and of water used in all other plumb- 
ing fixtures shall be equal to the purity of the 
water supplied through the Chicago waterworks 
system. 

Automatic flush tanks for urinals.] Flush tanks 
for urinals shall be arranged for intermittent and 
automatic discharges. All urinals shall be flushed 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 263 

at regular intervals not to exceed seven minutes 
each. 

Cisterns for water-closets— siphon discharge- 
house tanks.] Where cisterns are used for water- 
closets they shall each have a siphon discharge. 
The valves of such cisterns shall be fitted and ad- 
justed so as to prevent a waste of water. When 
the city pressure is not sufficient to supply such 
cisterns or plumbing fixtures with water, ade- 
quate pumps or house tanks shall be provided. 

Water-closets within buildings— flushing rim 
bowls.] All water-closets within buildings shall 
have flushing rim bowls. 

Water-closets within buildings— flushing dis- 
charge.] Water-closets and urinals within build- 
ings shall not be supplied from any water supply 
pipes direct. 

All water-closets within buildings shall be fitted 
with either siphon discharge flush or pressure 
tanks or approved automatically flushing valves 
not directly connected to the city water supply 
pipes. 

All individual water-closets within buildings 
at each flush shall receive not less than four gal- 
lons of water into the closet bowl at each dis- 
charge, which shall be discharged in such time 
and with such force as shall thoroughly clean the 
closet bowl at each flush. 

Long hopper closets— regulations.] Long hop- 
per closets shall not be installed within any build- 
ing hereafter constructed. Long hopper closets 
may be installed in a cellar or unfinished basement 



264 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

of old or existing buildings only. A water-closet 
in a basement or in a yard may be flushed with 
a hopper cock or stop and waste cock buried to a 
depth of at least three feet below the ground. A 
long hopper closet of the last named construction 
shall be located at least eight feet distant from 
any dwelling. 

A flushing rim water-closet may be placed ad- 
jacent to the outside wall of an existing building 
when the occupied floor of the building is not 
more than two feet above the ground level, in 
which case such closets shall be flushed by suit- 
able flushing cistern, the flushing pipe from which 
shall be brought nearly to the level of the closet 
seat on the inside of the building. 

Outside water-closets— where prohibited— regu- 
lations.] A water-closet shall not be installed on 
a porch or other like place. Outside water-clos- 
ets may be installed for buildings heretofore erect- 
ed only. 

Water-closets when placed in the yard of any 
building heretofore erected shall be separately 
trapped and placed not less than eight feet from 
any dwelling or other place of abode and so ar- 
ranged as to be conveniently and adequately 
flushed, and their water supply pipes and traps 
shall be protected from freezing. The compart- 
ments for such water-closets shall be adequately 
lighted and ventilated. 

Water-closets under sidewalks, etc.] Where 
water-closets or other plumbing fixtures are placed 
under a sidewalk, street, alley or other like place, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 265 

adjoining and opening into the basement of any 
building, each and every fixture so placed shall 
be ventilated in the same manner as is provided 
for other plumbing fixtures in this chapter, and 
the water-closet compartments shall be adequate- 
ly lighted and ventilated. 

Places of employment— separate water-closets 
for men and women— number.] In all places of 
employment where men and women are employed, 
separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
vided for males and females. Water-closets for 
men shall be plainly marked " Men's Toilet" and 
water-closets for women shall be plainly marked 
"Women's Toilet." 

In all places of employment, one water-closet 
shall be provided for every twenty-five males or 
less number, and one water-closet shall be pro- 
vided for every twenty females or less number. 
Such water-closet facilities shall be furnished upon 
at least every second floor. Where there are em- 
ployes in any basement, such basement shall be 
considered as one floor. 

Water-closets in hotels and lodging houses.] In 

lodging houses and hotels hereafter erected or al- 
tered there shall be provided one water-closet for 
every twenty-five males or less' number and one 
water-closet for every twenty females or less num- 
ber. The number of water-closets required shall 
be determined from the number of lodging quar- 
ters provided. There shall be at least one closet 
on each floor. The general water-closet accom- 



266 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

modations of a lodging house shall not be placed 
in the basement. 

Separate closets in buildings used for both busi- 
ness and residence purposes.] In all buildings 
used jointly for residence and business purposes, 
separate and sufficient water-closets shall be pro- 
vided for the use of families and for the use of 
employes and patrons of the place. 

Toilet paper.] No paper other than what is 
commonly known as toilet paper shall be placed 
in any water-closet or allowed to enter any soil 
pipe. 

House tanks— zinc and lead linings prohibited 
—overflow pipes.] Tanks in which water to be 
used for drinking or other domestic purposes is 
stored shall not be lined with zinc or lead* 

The overflow pipes from such tanks shall dis- 
charge upon the roof or be trapped and discharged 
into an open sink. Such overflow pipes shall not 
be connected into any soil waste pipe or other 
sewer connected pipe; nor shall the drain or sedi- 
ment pipe be connected into any soil, waste or 
other pipe directly connected with a sewer. 

Rain water leaders— prohibited uses— when to 
be trapped— construction.] Eain water pipes or 
leaders shall not be used as soil, waste or vent 
pipes; nor shall any soil, waste or vent pipe be 
used for a rain water pipe or leader. Where a 
rain water leader opens near any window, door or 
vent shaft, or is so located as to render it likely 
to become a nuisance, if not trapped, it shall be 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 267 

properly trapped far enough below the surface to 
prevent its becoming a nuisance or freezing. 

Inside rain water leaders shall be made of ex- 
tra heavy cast iron or tar or asphaltum coated 
wrought iron pipe or galvanized wrought iron 
pipe, with roof connections, made gas and water 
tight by means of heavy lead or copper drawn 
tubing, wiped or soldered to a brass ferrule, calked 
or screwed into the pipe. Outside rain water 
leaders may be of sheet metal, but they shall con- 
nect with the house drain by means of a .five-foot 
length of cast iron pipe extending vertically at 
least four feet above the grade level. 

Steam pipes— condensers— vents.] No steam, 
exhaust, blowoff, drip or return pipe from any 
steam trap shall connect with the sewer or with 
any house drain, soil, or waste pipe or rain water 
pipe. The water or steam of condensation from 
such pipes, before it shall enter any sewer or 
drain, shall be discharged into a suitable cast iron 
catch basin or condenser, from which a special 
vent pipe not less than two inches in diameter 
shall extend through the roof. 

Blowoff pipes— how made— discharge.] Blow- 
off pipes from boiler or heating plants shall be 
either of extra heavy cast iron pipe or galvanized 
wrought iron pipe. No such blowoff or hot water 
pipe shall discharge directly or indirectly into 
any vitrified earthenware tile sewer within any 
building. 

Temperature of water entering sewer.] No 
water of a higher temperature than one hundred 



268 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

and twenty degrees Fahrenheit shall be permitted 
to enter any house sewer direct. 

Area drains to be trapped— when.] When the 
area drains are connected to the house sewer or 
drain, they shall be effectively trapped. Such 
traps shall be protected from frost. 

Cellar drainer— ground water.] Cellars and 
basements shall be kept free from ground or sur- 
face water, and where the same are too low to 
be drained into the sewer, the water therefrom 
shall be lifted by a cellar drainer or other device, 
approved by the chief sanitary inspector, and dis- 
charged into the sewer. 

Floor washes in basements— building plans 
must indicate locations of backwater valves.] 
Floor washes for basements shall be provided 
with a deep seal trap, having a heavy strainer, 
and a backwater gate valve, or stop, accessible 
for cleaning. 

No backwater valve shall be used which has not 
been approved by the chief sanitary inspector. 

All building plans, where basement floor washes 
are connected, shall indicate where and what 
backwater valve or device is to be used. 

Sumps— tight cover.] Sumps or rodding basins 
for sub-soil drains shall be provided with tight 
cast iron covers. 

Wood sinks and tubs prohibited.] The instal- 
lation of stationary wooden sinks and wooden 
laundry tubs is prohibited inside of any building 
used for human habitation. Such sinks and tubs 
shall be of non-absorbent material. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 269 

Catch basins prohibited within buildings— ex- 
ceptions.] No catch basin or gravel basin shall 
be allowed within any building, except as pro- 
vided for in the following sections. 

Catch basin to intercept kitchen wastes— diam- 
eter.] Kitchen or other greasy wastes shall be 
intercepted by a catch basin or grease trap and 
thence conducted to the house sewer. 

The vitrified tile sewer through which kitchen 
wastes are conducted shall be at least six inches 
in internal diameter. 

Catch basins for kitchen wastes— construction 
—covers.] Catch basins for receiving such wastes 
shall be constructed either of brick, concrete or 
cast iron. If of brick or concrete, they shall be 
at least thirty inches in internal diameter at the 
base and may taper to not less than twenty-two 
inches internal diameter at the top. 

Each catch basin shall be covered at the grade 
level with a stone, iron or cement concrete cover, 
having an opening of sixteen inches diameter, 
and fitted with an eighteen inch iron lid of a 
weight not less than eighteen pounds. No stone 
cover shall be less than three inches in thickness. 
No wooden catch basin cover shall be hereafter 
installed. If a wooden catch basin cover becomes 
rotten or defective so as to require repair or re- 
placement, it shall be removed and replaced with 
a stone, iron or cement cover placed at the grade 
level. 

Every concrete cover hereafter installed shall, 
if not reinforced as hereinafter provided, be made 



270 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

at least three and one-half inches thick from a 
Portland cement concrete mixture consisting of 
one part cement, two parts limestone screening 
free from clay, and three parts number three 
crushed limestone such as will pass through a 
three-quarter inch sieve. The use of clean tor- 
pedo sand entirely free from dirt shall be con- 
sidered the equivalent of the two parts of lime- 
stone screening in this mixture. 

Every reinforced concrete cover shall be not 
less than three inches in thickness, made of the 
mixture above described, and shall be reinforced 
with two hoops of not less than gauge number 
ten wire, having the respective diameters of 
twenty and twenty-eight inches, and provided 
with at least eight cross connections of the same 
wire between the inner and outer hoops. 

All covers shall be manufactured under shel- 
ter, protected from the sun, wind and frost, and 
shall not be removed from such shelter for at 
least two weeks after manufacture. 

The walls of such catch basins, if of brick, shall 
be eight inches thick and laid in Portland cement 
mortar and plastered outside and inside with a 
half-inch coat of Portland cement mortar in pro- 
portion of one part of Portland cement and two 
parts of clean, sharp sand. The bottom shall be 
at least eight inches thick and of either brick 
laid in cement mortar or of Portland cement con- 
crete. The brick used shall be hard burned sewer 
brick. 

Where Portland cement concrete is used, the 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 271 

walls shall be at least five inches thick, and the 
concrete shall be made of one part of live Portland 
cement, three parts of clean, sharp sand, and four 
parts of crushed stone free from dust and of sizes 
between one-fourth inch and one and one-half 
inches in largest diameter; and, in addition, the 
catch basins shall be plastered inside and out, 
as specified above for brick construction. Catch 
basins shall be made water tight. No re-tempered 
cement shall be used. 

The bottom of catch basins shall be at least 
two feet below the invert of the outlet to the 
sewer. 

The outlet shall be trapped to a depth of six 
inches below the invert of the outlet to the sewer 
to prevent the escape of grease, by a hood or trap 
of brick and cement mortar, or a hood of concrete 
or cast iron. 

The invert of the inlet to the catch basin for 
kitchen wastes shall be not less than two and one- 
half feet above the finished bottom of the catch 
basin. 

Catch basin dispensed with— grease trap.] 

Where the building covers the entire lot, the catch 
basin for kitchen wastes may be dispensed with; 
provided, that a suitable sized grease trap of ap- 
proved construction is installed and provided with 
a water jacket through which shall circulate the 
water that is drawn for the general kitchen use. 
Such grease traps shall at all times be accessible 
for cleaning. 



272 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Rain conductor connection— defective catch ba- 
sins.] Rain water leaders may connect to catch 
basins. Such leaders shall connect to a catch 
basin when they conduct water from a gravel 
roof. 

Defective and leaking catch basins shall be re- 
built according to the above specifications. 

Number of urinals in factories.] In all places 
of employment, one urinal shall be provided for 
every seventy-five males or less number. 

Urinals— construction— prohibited use.] The 
sides, back and base of every urinal stall placed 
within any building shall be of non-absorbent ma- 
terial. Urinal stalls having troughs set in the 
floors are prohibited. The top of the urinal base 
shall be set one and one-half inches above the 
finished floor level. Urinal troughs and sectional 
urinals, unless lipped and provided with suitable 
automatic flush tanks or approved intermittent 
and automatic flushing valves, are prohibited. No 
sectional urinals shall be placed within a building 
or compartment which is subject to vibrations. 

Urinal flush— prohibited materials— separate 
trap and waste pipe.] Every urinal stall shall 
have an individual lipped sanitary bowl. 

The use of cast iron, galvanized iron, sheet metal 
or steel urinal bowls and troughs is prohibited. 
Each urinal bowl shall be separately and inde- 
pendently trapped and shall have a waste pipe 
of at least two inches in diameter. 

Automatic flushing of urinals— frequency.] 
Each and every urinal trough and urinal bowl 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 273 

shall be intermittently and automatically flushed 
with at least one gallon water flush for each urinal 
bowl or two foot length of urinal trough and at 
intervals not to exceed seven minutes each during 
its period of use. 

The flushing of all such urinal fixtures shall be 
by means of either approved intermittently and 
automatically operated flush tanks or by inter- 
mittently and automatically operated flushing 
valves protected against a vacuum by a ground 
seat check valve. 

Urinal wastes— screens.] The waste pipe of a 
"battery" of not exceeding four urinals shall not 
be less than two inches in diameter. For batteries 
exceeding this number the waste pipe shall be at 
least three inches in diameter. 

No wire or metal screen shall be placed in any 
urinal bowl, unless every part of such screen is 
thoroughly washed at each water flush. 

Revent omitted— when.] Where a single water- 
closet or other plumbing fixture is located in a 
building or on the top floor of any building, and 
there is an adequate soil or waste pipe of undi- 
minished size from ground (in building) to roof, 
the revent pipe may be dispensed with; provided, 
that for water-closets a non-siphoning trap, tested 
and approved by the chief sanitary inspector, or 
a closet of approved construction, is used for such 
work; and provided, further, that the trap of 
such fixture is located not more than five feet 
from such soil or waste pipe. 



274 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Revent omitted, when.] Where a toilet or bath 
room having not more than one closet and three 
other fixtures therein is located on one -floor only 
or the top floor of any building, and such closet 
is set not more than five feet from the vertical 
soil pipe, the revent for the closet may be omitted; 
provided, that a closet of an approved construc- 
tion is installed. 

Vent pipes reconnected— exception.] Vent pipes 
shall be reconnected to main soil and waste pipes 
or drain by a "Y" branch below the lowest fix- 
ture, and in such manner as to prevent accumula- 
tion of rust. This shall not apply where there is 
a battery of fixtures on one floor only and no 
other fixtures on floors above or below. 

Open Plumbing.] All plumbing fixtures shall 
be installed as open plumbing. 

Prohibited closets— removal.] Pan, plunger, 
offset, washout-range closets and washout latrines 
shall not be allowed in any building; nor shall 
hopper closets be installed in any building here- 
after erected. Such closets, when found to be a 
nuisance, shall be removed, or when the same are 
removed for repairs they shall not be again in- 
stalled. In alteration work, pan and plunger 
closets shall be removed. 

Range closets of types approved by the com- 
missioner of health and the chief sanitary in- 
spector may be installed in factories and work- 
shops only, and such closets shall be installed in 
separate compartments as hereinbefore provided 
for water-closet compartments. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 275 

Reventing washout closets.] Where individual 
washout closets are installed they shall be re- 
vented above the floor line. Eubber connections 
or connections of like material shall not be used 
on any sewer connected pipe. 

Prohibited fixtures not reinstalled.] No fixture 
shall be installed and no fixture shall be recon- 
nected or reinstalled where it does not \neet the 
requirements of this chapter. \ 

Earthenware trap connections— how maxiej All 
earthenware and closet traps shall be connected to 
waste or soil pipes by inserting heavy brass floor 
or wall flanges, not less than one-fourth of an 
inch in thickness where lead bends are used, and 
shall be soldered to the same and bolted to the 
trap flange. 

Where brass or iron bends are used, brass or 
iron flanges not less than one-fourth of an inch 
in thickness may be used, and shall be screwed 
or calked to the same and bolted to the trap flange, 
and all such joints shall be made tight without the 
use of putty, cement, plaster, rubber or leather 
washers. The use of putty, cement, plaster, rub- 
ber, or leather washers is hereby prohibited in 
making all connections between traps of plumbing 
fixtures and soil or waste pipes. 

No flange, iron bend or gasket connection shall 
be used until it has been approved under test by 
the chief sanitary inspector. One of each of the 
above type of gaskets, flanges and iron bends shall 
be kept on exhibition in the sanitary bureau of the 
department of health. 



276 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Slip joints— ground joints.] Slip joints shall 
not be permitted on the sewer side of any trap, 
unless the metal connection is required between 
the soil or waste pipe and tile sewers. Unions 
on wrought ison, soil, waste and vent pipes shall 
be made by means of metallic brass-seated ground 
unions, or flange unions with sheet lead gaskets, 
and made without other gaskets or packing. 

Barn drainage— traps— catch basins.] Floor 
washouts, urinal gutters and wash racks in barns 
or stables shall be provided with deep seal traps, 
having heavy strainers. Such traps shall have 
a depth of seal of at least three inches and shall 
be located at the floor line. An adequate water 
supply shall be provided for flushing such gutters. 

All liquid wastes from barns or stables shall 
be intercepted before entering the sewer by a 
catch basin placed outside of the building, which 
shall be either the catch basin which is constructed 
according to the specifications for such catch ba- 
sins or a cast iron catch basin provided with 
bolted air-tight iron cover. Barn drains and 
wastes shall be ventilated by sufficient and proper 
vents through the roof. 

Special permits — when issued.] Special permits 
will be issued by the chief sanitary inspector only. 

Where special permits are issued, the location 
shall be inspected before the work is started, and 
duplicate plans in ink, in the name of the owner, 
agent or architect, shall be submitted and ap- 
proved and placed on file. These plans shall show 
the proposed work, in plan and elevation. Such 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 277 

plans shall be drawn on paper or cloth and drawn 
to a quarter inch to the foot scale. 

The installation of any sewer connected fixture 
or of any sewer connected pipe or pipes other than 
those hereinbefore mentioned, or under any other 
conditions than those hereinbefore set forth, shall 
be as directed by the chief sanitary inspector, and 
the same shall be covered by special permits is- 
sued by him. 

Plumber's notification — inspection — when.] 
When the plumbing in any building is ready for 
inspection, the plumber in charge of the work 
shall immediately notify the commissioner of 
health in writing of such fact at least twenty-four 
hours in advance of inspection. Inspections will 
not be made the same day that notifications are 
received. 

Inspection of repairs.] The following repairs 
and extensions to any part of the plumbing and 
drainage system in any building shall also be re- 
ported for inspection, viz.: where there is any 
change in any sewer connected pipe, and where 
such change is on the sewer side of the trap, ex- 
cept in the case of minor repairs. 

Inspection— test,] The entire plumbing system, 
when roughed in, in any building, shall be tested 
by the plumber in the presence of the plumbing 
inspector and as directed by him, under either a 
water pressure or air pressure. 

The water pressure test for plumbing shall be 
applied by closing the lower end of the vertical 
pipes and filling the pipes to the highest opening 



278 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

above the roof with water. The air pressure test 
for plumbing shall be applied with a force pump 
and mercury column equal to ten inches of mer- 
cury. The use of spring gauges is prohibited. 
Special provision shall be made to include all 
joints and connections to the finished line or face 
of floors or side walls, so that all vents or revents, 
including lead work, may be tested with the main 
stacks. All pipes shall remain uncovered in every 
part until they have successfully passed the test. 
After the completion of the work, and when fix- 
tures are installed, either a smoke test under a 
pressure of one inch water column shall be made 
of the system, including all vent and revent pipes, 
in the presence of the plumbing inspector and as 
directed by him, or a peppermint test made by 
using five fluid ounces of oil of peppermint for 
each line up to five stories and basement in height, 
and for each additional five stories or fraction 
thereof one additional ounce of peppermint shall 
be provided for each line. 

All defective pipes and fittings or fixtures shall 
be removed and all defective work shall be made 
good so as to conform to the provisions of this 
chapter. 

The tile drainage system inside any building 
shall be tested by the drainage layer or sewer 
builder, in the presence of the house drain in- 
spector, by closing up the end of the drains two 
feet outside the building and filling the pipes 
inside the building with water to a height of at 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 279 

least two feet above the highest point of the tile 
drainage system. 

Water-closet and urinal compartment— ventila- 
tion.] Water-closets and urinals shall not be in- 
stalled in an unventilated room or compartment. 
In every case the room or compartment shall be 
open to the outer air or be ventilated by means of 
an air duct or shaft or be mechanically ventilated. 

Where a urinal, bath or water-closet compart- 
ment is mechanically ventilated, the air shall be 
changed at least four times per hour by exhaust- 
ing the air from the compartment. 

In the case of an extension or alteration of any 
existing plumbing system, the same, if new stacks 
are run, shall be tested when roughed in and when 
completed, as hereinbefore provided. 

Peppermint test for alterations.] In other al- 
teration work, a peppermint test, and only this 
test, shall be applied by using five fluid ounces of 
oil of peppermint for each line up to five stories 
and basement in height, and for each additional 
five stories or fraction thereof one additional ounce 
of peppermint shall be provided for each line. 

Old work remodeled.] In remodeling work, 
the existing system of soil, waste and ventilating 
pipes shall be changed to make them reasonably 
conform to the provisions of this chapter. 

Light and ventilation.] All urinal, bath or 
water-closet compartments, hereafter constructed 
in any building, shall be lighted and ventilated 
as hereinafter provided for in this chapter. Every 
water-closet or urinal compartment or bath room 



280 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

in every now existing building, and every com- 
partment in buildings hereafter erected, where 
the compartment is more than one story under 
ground, shall be separately ventilated by a win- 
dow opening to the external air or by proper and 
adequate ventilating pipes, shafts or ducts run- 
ning through the roof or to the external air, and 
providing for at least four changes of airfor the 
entire compartment each hour. All such compart- 
ments shall be adequately lighted by either nat- 
ural or artificial light. 

Toilet compartments— separate.] The urinal, 
bath or water-closet compartments shall be sep- 
arate compartments and shall be entirely sepa- 
rated from any other room, workshop, office or 
hall by a tight partition extending from floor to 
ceiling, and every door of every such compart- 
ment shall be provided with a door check to keep 
such door closed. 

No window or other opening shall be made to 
open from any such compartment for the purpose 
of ventilation, into any adjoining room, office, 
workshop, factory, hallway or compartment of any 
kind. 

Window area in toilet compartments.] In every 
building hereafter constructed, every such com- 
partment, where there is not more than one story 
under ground, shall have a window not less than 
one foot wide and of an area of at least four 
square feet for a floor area of forty-five square 
feet or less, opening directly into the outer air, 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 281 

or special light and air shaft, into which no other 
rooms or compartments, other than toilet com- 
partments, are ventilated. For upwards of forty- 
five square feet of floor area there shall be a win- 
dow area of at least one-tenth of the floor area. 
The windows in all cases are to be arranged so 
as to admit of their being opened at least one- 
half their height. The urinal, bath or water-closet 
compartments on the top floor of any building may 
be lighted and ventilated by means of a skylight 
and ventilator. The area of the skylight shall 
conform to the above specified areas for windows. 

Fixtures to be kept in sanitary condition.] All 

such fixtures in such compartments as are referred 
to in the previous section shall be kept in a thor- 
oughly clean and sanitary condition. 

Ventilation into court.] Nothing herein con- 
tained shall be construed as preventing the venti- 
lation of the above mentioned compartments into 
an outer, inner or lot line court. 

Plans— plan and elevation, etc.] Building plans 
in duplicate shall be filed with the bureau of sani- 
tary inspection before the original plans are ap- 
proved. Such duplicates shall be on paper or 
cloth and drawn to a standard' scale, showing how 
all rooms and compartments of the building are 
to be lighted and ventilated. They shall also show 
in plans and in at least one elevation all drains, 
soil, waste, vent and revent, pipes within the build- 
ing and the location of all plumbing fixtures with- 
in the building, the location of the catch basin 



282 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

(in case one is necessary) outside of the building, 
and its connection to the drainage and sewerage 
system. 

Fee before plans are approved.] Before plans 
are approved, the following fees for inspection 
shall be paid to the city collector: 

When the building contains from one to six 
plumbing fixtures, the sum of fifty cents shall be 
paid for the inspection of each fixture, and for 
each and every additional fixture thereafter in- 
stalled, or for which waste or vent fittings are in- 
stalled, the sum of twenty-five cents shall be the 
fee for inspection. 

Certificate of inspection.] When the plumbing 
in a building is completed, the plumber or his rep- 
resentative shall secure for the owner of such 
building, from the commissioner of health, a cer- 
tificate of inspection, signed by the chief sanitary 
inspector and approved by the commissioner of 
health, certifying that the plumbing work has been 
properly inspected and tested as required by the 
provisions of this chapter. 

Penalty.] Any person or corporation who shall 
violate any of the provisions of this chapter shall 
be fined not more than two hundred dollars nor 
less than twenty-five dollars for each offense; and 
a separate and distinct offense shall be regarded as 
having been committed each day on which such 
violation shall be allowed or suffered to continue 
after the first offense. 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 283 

GAS WATEB HEATERS. 

Permit required to install or connect gas water 
heaters in bath room or lavatory.] No person, 
firm or corporation shall install or connect any hot 
water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
ing water in the same by the use of natural or 
artificial gas as fuel, within the city of Chicago, 
without first having obtained a permit as herein- 
after provided. 

Application— permit— fee.] Any person, firm or 
corporation desiring to install or connect any 
water heater in a bath room or lavatory for heat- 
ing water for use in such bath room or lavatory 
by the use of natural or artificial gas as fuel, shall 
file with the commissioner of health of the city of 
Chicago an application upon forms furnished by 
the department of health, containing the name of 
the applicant, the street number of the building 
in which the said heater is to be used (and if the 
building is an apartment building, the location 
of the apartment), the floor plan of the room, 
showing the proposed position of the heater, the 
location of the plumbing fixtures, the door and 
window openings, showing their dimensions, and 
the course of the gas duct or ventilating pipe to 
the outer air or to a chimney connection. 

If such application is approved by the commis- 
sioner of health, it shall be the duty of the city 
clerk to issue a permit to the applicant upon the 
payment by him of a fee of fifty cents for every 
such heater desired to be installed or connected. 

Structural requirements.] No person, firm 01 



284 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

corporation shall install or connect any such heater 
unless it be provided with a metallic hood to which 
there shall be connected a suitable ventilating pipe 
not less than two inches in diameter, which said 
pipe shall extend to a chimney flue or to the open 
air in such a way as to carry off all escaping gases 
or fumes from such heater. In case such venti- 
lating pipe shall extend to the open air, it shall 
be provided with a cap or cowl so as to prevent 
a back draft. Every such heater shall be pro- 
vided with a convenient and adequate means of 
access to the burners and heating surfaces, for 
the purpose of lighting and cleaning same. No 
such heater shall be set closer to the floor than 
twenty inches, measuring from the top of the 
burner. The use of a pilot light on such heater 
is hereby prohibited ; provided, that nothing here- 
in contained shall prevent the use of a pilot light 
on a large water heater automatically controlled 
by a thermostat and located elsewhere than in a 
bathroom or lavatory. 

Duty of owner or person in possession of heater.] 

It shall be the duty of the owner or person in pos- 
session or control of any premises where gas water 
heaters have heretofore been installed in bath 
rooms or lavatories to make such heaters comply 
with the requirements of this article, and it shall 
be unlawful for any person to use any such heater 
until it shall have been made to conform to the 
provisions of this article. 

Penalty.] Any person, firm or corporation vio- 



CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 285 

lating, failing or refusing to comply with any of 
the sections of this article shall be fined not less 
than twenty-five nor more than two hundred dol- 
lars for each offense. 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 

The use of the electric current for thawing 
frozen water pipes has been practically demon- 
strated during the last few years to be a reliable 
and economical means of alleviating one of the 
discomforts incidental to a rigorous winter. This 
method has placed within the reach of property 
owners a safe and inexpensive means of thawing 
frozen pipes, and thus quickly and cheaply re- 
lieving themselves of the discomfort and incon- 
venience caused by one or more frozen water pipes 
in the building. The old method of thawing frozen 
pipes by means of a torch is at once, slow and 
dangerous, very often resulting in setting fire to 
the building, whereas, with an electric thawing 
outfit the work may be done in much less time and 
without necessitating the removal or destruction 
of any portion of the woodwork or plastering. 

Should the frozen pipe happen to be under- 
ground, it may be thawed with an electric outfit, 
without going to the trouble and expense of ex- 
cavating the entire length of the pipe, as with the 
old method. All that is necessary is to connect 
the terminals of the electric circuit to the pipe 
at two points far enough apart to include the 
frozen portion of the pipe within the circuit. This 
means digging down to the pipe at only two places 

2S6 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 287 

and these excavations need be only large enough 
to permit a man to connect the wires to the pipe. 
In order that the student may get an idea of the 
construction and operation of this valuable ad- 
junct to the modern plumber's equipment of tools, 
a description and illustrations are herein given of 
two styles of standard thawing outfits, as manu- 
factured by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. 
Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa. Fig. 177 shows the one 
for heavy service, comprising a specially designed 




Fig. 177 
Heavy Service Outfit 

Choke Coil 
Alternating Current 



choke coil, which is to be connected in series with 
the primary of a 2,100 volt, 60 cycle, 125 cycle or 
133 cycle transformer, as the case may be. The 
choke coil is mounted in a cast iron casing, which 
is provided with suitable carrying lugs. It is 



288 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

portable, as it weighs but 200 pounds, although 
it may be, and often is mounted upon a wagon 
or sled. The leads are connected to the choke 
coil through the handles of two contact plugs 
which fit the five plug sockets arranged to allow 
current adjustment. 

The secondary voltage can be decreased to ap- 
proximately 95 per cent, 87 per cent, 75 per cent, 
65 per cent and 50 per cent of the normal voltage 
by the insertion of the contact plugs in the proper 
sockets. The leads and handles of these plugs are 
insulated with a high test material guaranteed to 
resist successfully much greater potentials than it 
will ever be called upon to stand in actual service. 

It is impossible to injure the transformer, or 
choke coil by making a wrong connection. 

Fig. 178 shows the light service outfit. This de- 
vice is intended for thawing house piping that 
may become frozen. It is enclosed in a cast iron 
case, consisting of top and bottom castings firmly 
bolted together. 

Three plug sockets which are mounted in the top 
casting, are provided for obtaining the variation 
in secondary voltage of the transformer. The 
cables and handles of these plug contacts are also 
carefully insulated in order to avoid any possible 
injury to the operator. The low tension terminals 
are of sufficient size to receive cables of 60,000 
circular mils. This equipment is intended to be 
used on nominal 2,100 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle 



ELECTRICAL THAWING APPARATUS 289 

circuits. The secondary voltage can be adjusted 
for either 55 or 35 volts by means of the above 




Fig. 178 
Light Service Outfit 
Alternating Current 

mentioned plug contacts which are connected to 
taps on the winding of the primary. 

A current of 100 amperes can be maintained for 
one-half hour without undue heating. 

The insulation is specially prepared to with- 
stand severe weather conditions. 



290 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

No oil is used with this transformer, the lam- 
inations of the coils being exposed directly to the 
air. This device can be carried by one man, as 
it weighs but 100 pounds complete. Two substan- 
tial clamps for securing good contact with the 
pipe are included with the outfit. 

Operation.— The outfit is brought as near to 
the frozen pipe as conditions will permit. 

The high tension leads are then connected to 
the main line feeders. The low tension leads are 
attached to opposite ends of the section of pipe 
to be thawed. For service piping in buildings, 
one lead may be connected to a faucet, and the 
other to a convenient hydrant. When street mains 
are to be thawed, two hydrants are often used as 
connections, or, when this is impracticable, exca- 
vations are made which allow the leads to be con- 
nected directly with the pipe. The capacity of the 
transformer used with the heavy service outfit 
(Fig. 177) is from 15 to 25 K. W., adapted to 
a nominal 2,100 volt, 60, 125 or 133 cycle A. C. 
circuit. The transformer used with the light 
service outfit (Fig. 178) has a capacity of 5 K. W. 
adapted to the same kind of current as the larger 
equipment. 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 

Modern architecture is not satisfied with ex- 
tending the building to a height of several hun- 
dred feet in the air above street level, but installs 
sub-basements at a depth which renders it neces- 
sary to use some other means than the force of 
gravitation for removing the sewage and drain- 
age from the building. 

One of the most efficient devices for accom- 
plishing this work is the automatic ejector, of 
which there are several types. 

The apparatus herein described and illustrated 
is known as the Shone System of Sewage and 
Drainage for buildings, and is in successful 
operation in many of the largest buildings in the 
United States. 

The following data regarding this system h 
furnished by the Shone Company of Chicago : 

The principles governing the operation of the 
Shone System are the same in all cases, the deep 
basements of city buildings and the long distance? 
to which sewage has often to be conveyed from 
buildings in the country merely presenting varie- 
ties of the same problem. 

In general, the system may be described as 
follows : 

An air and water tight vessel, known as an 
" Ejector,' J is placed in a chamber provided for 
it, in such a position that all the sewage and 

291 



292 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

drainage of the building can flow to it by gravi- 
tation. 

The sewers connect directly to the ejector, and 
as the latter can be placed at any depth required, 
there is no difficulty in obtaining sufficient fall to 
enable them to be made perfectly self -cleansing. 

The ejector is furnished with an iron sewage 
discharge pipe, leading to the point of delivery or 
outfall, and it is also connected with a supply of 
compressed air which is constantly maintained. 

As soon as an ejector is filled, the compressed 
air is automatically admitted and the sewage is 
forced out through the discharge pipe, whereupon 
the compressed air is cut off and fresh sewage 
again commences to fill the ejector. 

The operation of emptying the ejector usually 
takes less than half a minute. The time it takes 
to fill depends upon its size and upon the amount 
of sewage coming down the sewers at any given 
moment. 

In this manner the sewage is handled auto- 
matically and is ejected from the building as fast 
as it is produced, without coming in contact in 
any way with the air of the building. 

When an ejector is in operation, it is perfectly 
inoffensive, and it is impossible to tell of what 
the liquid it is handling may be composed. It can 
and should be kept as clean as any other piece 
of machinery, and it is preferably located where 
it will be in plain view. 

The Shone Pneumatic Ejector. Fig. 179 shows 
a sectional view of an ejector of the type usually 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 



293 



employed in buildings. It consists essentially of a 
closed vessel furnished with sewage inlet and dis- 
charge connections, of a diameter suitable to the 



AfA PRESSURE 




'Fig. 179 
Shone Pneumatic Ejector 



size of the ejector and the amount of sewage to 
be pumped. The main sewer of the building is 
connected directly to the inlet pipe A, and the dis- 
charge pipe B is continued to wherever it is de- 
sired to deliver the sewage. In each of these 
connections is placed a check valve which permits 



294 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

a flow in one direction only, that in the inlet pipe 
opening toward the ejector and that in the dis- 
charge pipe away from it. 

On the cover of the ejector is placed the auto- 
matic valve E, to which is connected the air pres- 
sure pipe from a receiver which is kept constantly 
charged, and the air exhaust pipe leading to the 
outside of the building. This valve controls the 
admission of air to, and exhaust from the ejector. 

Inside the ejector are hung two cast-iron bells, 
C and D, linked to each other by an iron rod, in 
reverse positions, as shown. The bronze rod to 
which the bell D is attached passes through a stuf- 
fing box and connects by means of links to a lever 
with a counterweight. The rising or falling of 
these bells operates the automatic valve E through 
a rock shaft connecting it with the center of mo- 
tion of the lever, the counterweight being so 
adjusted as to balance their weight, except when 
the system is thrown out of equilibrium by the 
filling or emptying of the ejector as hereafter 
described. 

As shown in Fig. 179 the bells are in their low- 
est position (the extent of their movement being 
limited to about iy 2 inches), the compressed air 
is cut off from the ejector, and the interior of the 
ejector is open to the atmosphere through the 
automatic valve, and air exhaust pipe. 

The sewage, therefore, can flow through the in- 
let pipe A into the ejector, which it gradually fills 
until it reaches the bell D and commences to rise 
around it. When the latter is sufficiently sub- 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 295 

merged for its buoyancy to overcome the friction 
of the parts, it raises both itself and the lower 
bell,- to which it is attached, into their upper posi- 
tions. The consequent movement of the lever 
throws over the automatic valve, thereby closing 
the connection between the inside of the ejector, 
and the atmosphere, and admitting the com- 
pressed air. The check valve in the inlet pipe 
falls upon its seat as soon as the ejector is filled, 
thus preventing any return in that direction, and 
the compressed air, acting upon the surface of 
the sewage in the ejector, immediately commences 
to drive it downwards, and out through the dis- 
charge pipe B. The sewage passes out of the 
ejector until its level falls to such a point that 
the lower bell C is sufficiently exposed for its 
weight to throw the system out of equilibrium in 
the opposite direction. 

The bells consequently fall, which again re- 
verses the automatic valve and returns it to its 
original position. The result of this action is, 
first, to cut off the supply of compressed air, 
whereupon the outflow of sewage ceases, and the 
check valve in the discharge pipe drops to its 
seat, and, secondly, to allow the compressed air 
within the ejector to escape to the atmosphere. 

The sewage which has been ejected cannot re- 
turn past the discharge valve, fresh sewage com- 
mences to flow into the ejector once more, and 
so the action goes on as often as the ejector is 
filled. The positions of the bells are so adjusted 
that the compressed air is not admitted until the 



296 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

ejector is full, and is not allowed to exhaust 
until the ejector is emptied down to the discharge 
level; thus the ejector discharges a specific quan- 
tity each time it operates. 

The principal objects which have been kept in 
view in the design of this machine are the capacity 
for handling rough, unscreened sewage, com- 
bined with certainty of action, simplicity, and 
durability. Although ejectors may be and fre- 
quently have been operated uninterruptedly for 
years with no attention whatever, such treatment 
is not to be recommended. Where continuous 
service night and day is required, as is usually 
the case, if there is only one ejector, it is difficult 
to give it the ordinary care that any machine 
should have, or to effect the repairs that must 
sooner or later become necessary, and which are 
likely to be needed all the sooner if it is not kept 
continuously in good condition. For this reason, 
as well as to supply reserve capacity in cases of 
emergency (such as the bursting of a water main, 
or flooding by fire engines), ejectors are general- 
ly installed in duplicate. 

Ejectors are built in various sizes, from a 
capacity of fifty gallons per minute each up to 
as large as desired. 

Air Compressing Apparatus. The air for the 

operation of the ejector is furnished by a com- 
pressor, which delivers it to an air receiver, the 
compressor being in all cases arranged to start 
and stop automatically as the pressure falls or 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 2/7 

rises in the receiver in accordance with the de- 
mands being made by the ejector. The compres- 
sor is so proportioned as to be capable of supply- 
ing air at a suitable pressure and in sufficient 
volume to operate the ejector at its maximum 
capacity. 

Compressors can be driven by steam, electricity 
or any form of power, the only essential being 
that the power shall be available at all times. 

When steam is employed, a direct acting com- 
pressor is the most suitable for small plants. For 
the larger sizes, or where several ejectors are 
operated by one compressing plant, a duplex 
crank and fly-wheel compressor is generally used. 
The latter is much more economical in the con- 
sumption of steam, but the amount of power re- 
quired to operate ejectors is usually so insignifi- 
cant as to render the question of theoretical 
economy in the compressor altogether subsidiary 
to simplicity and ease of manipulation. 

Where electricity is the motive power, a hori- 
zontal crank and fly-wheel compressor, driven by 
a slow speed compound-wound motor, is generally 
employed. 

Fig. 180 shows such an arrangement, together 
with the automatic switchboard. As being more 
commonly employed than the single outfits, the 
whole apparatus is shown in duplicate, for as it 
also is generally required to be in constant opera- 
tion night and day, there are the same advantages 
in a duplicate installation as have been already 



298 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




S&BS&gSU&M 






00 ^ 



' r^-vr-,- 



■ 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 299 

explained in the case of the ejectors themselves. 

Each side of the switchboard controls its own 
motor, starting and stopping it automatically 
within any given limits of pressure, but there 
is a cross connection by means of which either 
side can be made to control both motors. 

When the air pressure falls, an electrical con- 
nection is made through an adjustable contact 
point, which closes a magnetic switch. This com- 
pletes the main circuit, and, through the inter- 
vention of an automatic starter which gradually 
cuts out resistance, starts the motor slowly with- 
out shock or undue strain. When the pressure 
has risen to the required amount, a connection 
is made with another adjustable contact point, 
which opens the magnetic switch and stops the 
motor. 

Should a chance failure of current occur while 
the motor is running, the magnetic switch im- 
mediately opens, the automatic starter falls to 
its original position, and on the restoration of the 
current the motor is re-started slowly as in the 
first place. 

The compressed air required in most buildings 
for some one or more of the many other purposes 
for which it is now employed, can be obtained 
from the compressing plant that operates the 
ejectors, provided the pressure required is about 
the same. For ordinary purposes, such as those 
of jewelers or other light manufacturers, or for 
blowing the dust out of electrical machinery, etc. r 



300 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

it is only necessary to allow for the additional 
quantity required. Special apparatus, however, 
has generally to be provided for filtering, wash- 
ing and drying the air used by doctors and 
dentists. 

When the pressure required is materially great- 
er than that needed to operate the ejectors 
(which seldom exceeds twenty-five pounds per 
square inch) , it is not generally advisable to com- 
bine the two services, although one side of a 
duplicate plant is occasionally arranged so that 
it can produce a high pressure in a separate 
receiver, which is cross connected so that if need 
be, it can be changed over to run the ejectors. 

As far as the action of the compressing ma- 
chinery and ejectors is concerned, it is the same 
in all cases, but the details of location and ar- 
rangement vary somewhat in accordance with the 
different conditions existing in different classes 
of buildings. 

Buildings in Cities. In buildings in cities the 
ejectors are usually located in some central posi- 
tion, and the compressing apparatus in the engine 
or machinery room. It is preferable to have the 
latter placed where it can be seen by the engineers 
in charge as they go about their duties, as the 
normal action of the compressing machinery is a 
sure index of the like action on the part of the 
ejectors themselves. 

Installation. Fig. 181 shows a pair of ejectors 
in position, with their connecting pipes. The 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 301 

discharge pipe from the ejectors can be led up 
to and along the basement ceiling and down to 
the street sewer, but it is preferable to lay it 
under the basement floor to the curb wall, and 
from there up into the street sewer. It should 
be run independently of all others, as in case of 
any obstruction in it, or the street sewer, the 
ejectors would be liable to force the sewage back 
up any pipes that might be connected to it. The 
air pressure, and air exhaust pipes have merely 
to be run in the most convenient manner, and 
require no special comment. The air exhaust 
pipe, however, which is for the purpose of pro- 
viding a means whereby the exhaust air can 
escape to the outside of the building, needs seldom 
to bQ run the whole way independently, as it can 
generally be connected to the flue leading from 
the boilers to the chimney, or it may be con- 
nected to some vapor pipe, or ventilating duct. 
Wherever it is possible to spare the room, ejector 
chambers should be left open, or at least partial- 
ly so, and surrounded by a coping and railing. 

If necessary, however, the chamber can be 
entirely covered; merely an entrance being left 
which can be closed with an ordinary manhole 
cover. Ejector chambers are usually circular in 
form, and may be built in a variety of ways, 
but they are generally constructed either of brick 
laid in cement or of tank steel. 

The latter form is used where the ground is 
bad, or where there is much water to contend with 
during construction, as unless conditions are 



302 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



favorable, great care is required in the construc- 
tion of brick chambers in order to make them 
water tight. A leaky chamber is a serious in- 
convenience, since the presence of water in it is 







Fig. 181 
Pair of Ejectors in Position 



not only unsightly, but prevents ready access to 
the machines, and is a hindrance to keeping them 
in good condition. 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE EJECTOR 303 

A steel chamber is usually designed in the form 
of a cylinder with a convex bottom. 

There should be a ring of angle iron around 
the top in order to stiffen it, and a suitable casting 
should be riveted to the side in order that a water 
tight joint may be made around the inlet pipe 
where it passes through to the ejectors. The steel 
shell is usually built complete, and then lowered 
in one piece onto a bed of concrete, after which 
it is grouted around outside with fine concrete, 
and a level floor inside of the same material. 

In applying this system to a group of build- 
ings the whole of the sewage and drainage of each 
building is collected into one sewer, and the 
ejectors are located at some central point to which 
each of these sewers can be brought with a good 
fall. It is preferable that the air compressing 
plant be located in the main engine or machinery 
room, where it can be cared for by the engineer 
in charge, and where it will at once give notice 
if everything is not operating properly. The air 
pressure pipe to the ejectors may be either cast 
or wrought iron. 



DISPOSAL OP SEWAGE. 

The disposal of sewerage in districts where 
there are no public sewers at hand is often a mat- 
ter of difficulty. Formerly, it was believed that 
if a running body of water, river or creek, was 
at hand, into which the sewerage could be emp- 
tied, the question of adequate sewer systems was 
solved. Frequent epidemics of diphtheria and 
scarlet fever, have called forth careful investiga- 
tion, which has proven that the pollution of 
streams contiguous to domestic water supplies 
with sewerage, is one of the greatest dangers to 
health. This subject is being more closely stud- 
ied every year, which is probably due to the wide 
publicity given it in discussions and reports of 
health departments. It is the purpose to con- 
sider some of the best sanitary systems and ap- 
pliances applicable to the convenience and health 
of country districts. A system which is adaptable 
for one place will not prove an adequate or ef- 
fectual system for another. It lies with the plumb- 
er or builder to study the conditions as they exist, 
and to exercise a little common sense. 

The old out-door closet, with its revolting 
stench and inconvenience, is rapidly disappearing. 
Private and public water service have made it 

304 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 305 

possible to install a modern bath room, even in 
the country, but the sewer disposal in most cases, 
is a puzzling proposition. 

The primitive method of installing a leaching 
cesspool, which is a hole dug in the ground deep 
enough to allow five or six feet of space below the 
inlet end of the house drain pipe, and five or six 
feet wide, walled up with loose stones, the bottom 
left loose and filled with about a foot of small 
stones and the top walled over with a tight arch, 
and the earth filled in to the grade level thereby 
depending on the liquid to ooze away through the 
porous strata, has a great many disadvantages. 
In the first place, in communities where the neigh- 
bors depend on wells for their water supply, it is 
very dangerous, as it invariably pollutes the sub- 
soil in the neighborhood and contaminates the 
well water supply. On a farm where plenty of 
ground is available, if located at a good distance 
from the dwelling, and at a lower level in the op- 
posite direction from the well, it may be used 
without causing any harm. In case such a cess- 
pool is used, the arch should be built up to an 
opening, twenty inches in diameter, and run to 
the surface and closed with an inspection cover 
hermetically sealed by a rubber gasket. 

The system of sub-surface irrigation for sewer- 
age disposal has been very well thought of by our 
best sanitary engineers. It consists of two abso- 
lutely tight cesspools or concrete receptables, a& 



306 



PRACTICAL PLUMBING 




DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 307 

shown in Fig. 182, built circular in shape, arched 
over, and with extended manholes to the surface, 
with tight inspection covers, also provided with 
an air-vest opening for the escape of gases, one 
tank to receive the drain from the house and to 
retain the solids and grease. The other for the 
liquid sewerage, connected together with an over- 
flow pipe in such a manner that the first basin is 
drained into the second, without disturbing the 
grease and scum in the top of the first onei, with a 
baffle plate, as shown, to prevent an underflow 
current from carrying the solids through to the 
second basin. 

In the drawing an inspection basin is shown 
with the syphon for emptying the liquid outside 
of the second basin. The advantage of this is 
that in case of the syphon failing to work prop- 
erly, it is accessible without disturbing the other 
two tanks. Another very frequent construction, 
which, of course, avoids the expense of the inspec- 
tion basin, is to place the syphon in the second 
tank and protect it with a wire screen. The ad- 
vantage of having the inspection basin, of course, 
is obvious, and hardly needs to be further com- 
mented upon here. The opening from the syphon 
is run with a four or six-inch vitrified salt glazed 
sewer pipe with tightly cemented joints, to a point 
down grade, where it is connected with four by 
two inch Y branches to a series of two or three- 
inch porous drain tile, which should be laid in a 



308 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

trench about ten inches deep, never deeper, on 
boards, with a very small fall about three or four 
inches per hundred feet, tiles to be laid with 
open joints, and joints to be covered with a half 
ring of vitrified clay or cup, to protect the same 
from filling up when buried. The liquid tank can 
be emptied in several ways, either with a sluice 
valve or a gate valve, both of which necessitates 
personal attention. The advantage of using the 
syphon is that it is automatic. 

There are a great many different kinds of sy- 
phons on the market, and it is sometimes a matter 
of personal opinion as to which is the best. The 
liquid tank should not be emptied more often 
than once everv twentv-four hours, which allows 

tf mi 7 

plenty of time for the ground to thoroughly drain, 
and to breathe in more oxygen, and then in a vol- 
ume sufficiently large enough to fill all the drain 
pipes at once, to insure an even distribution. This 
system is, of course, preferably adapted to a 
porous or gravel soil. In places where clay soil 
conditions exist, the soil should be drained at 
least four feet below the level with porous drain. 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY. 

The procuring of a water supply in the country 
depends largely upon the surrounding conditions. 
Of course, when the source of the water supply 
is at a higher level than the house, a gravity sys- 
tem is the least complicated, and very often the 
cheapest. When the house is located at a reason- 
able height above the water supply, which could 
be made to supply an eight or ten-foot head, the 
hydraulic ram could be used. Rams will work, 
and work successfully, where the spring or brook 
is only three feet higher than the ram head, as 
the height or head increases the more powerfully 
the ram operates, and its ability to force water to 
a greater elevation and distance correspondingly 
strengthens. The best wearing results will be se- 
cured where the head or fall does not exceed ten 
feet; the head on the discharge pipe may be from 
five to ten times the head on the drive pipe. As a 
specific example : It might be said a fall of ten feet 
from brook or spring to the ram is sufficient to 
raise water to any point, say 150 feet above the 
machine, while the same amount of fall would also 
raise water to a point considerably higher, though 
the quantity of water discharged will be propor- 
tionately diminished as the height and distance 
increase. 

309 



310 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

Rule for Estimating Delivery of Water. Multi- 
ply the number of gallons supplied to the ram 
per minute by three, and this product by the 
number of feet in head or fall of drive pipe, and 
divide by four times the number of feet to be 
raised. The result is the number of gallons raised 
per minute. Example: With a supply of ten gal- 
lons per minute delivered to a ram under a head 
or fall of ten feet, how much water can be raised 
to an elevation of 100 feet? 

10 X 3 X 10 

=.75 gallons per minute. 

100X4 

To obtain a water supply which will deliver 
water at any faucet in a house, yard or barn, it is 
necessary not only to pump the water, but to 
have some means of storing it under pressure. 
The elevated tank delivers it by gravity pressure, 
and, when used, should be placed at least eight 
to ten feet above the highest point from which 
the water is to be drawn, to insure a respectable 
velocity of discharge. 

Compressed Air System. The principle of de- 
livering water and other liquids by pressure of 
compressed air is very old, but it was not until 
recently that this principle was employed to fur- 
nish domestic water supply. 

One of the greatest advantages of the com- 



COUNTEY WATER SUPPLY 311 

pressed air system is that it does away with the 
elevated tank, and there are a great many defects 
in the elevated tank system. If placed in the at- 
tic, it is not high enough to afford a sufficient 
pressure to be any protection against fire. An- 
other objection is the weight of the tank, when 
filled with water, is very liable to crack the plas- 
tering and to leak. Another serious defect of the 
elevated tank, when placed in an attic or on a 
tower is the exposure to weather, in the winter 
it freezes and in the summer it become® warm. 

In the compressed air system the tank is placed 
either in the ground below the frost line or in the 
basement, and the water is pumped into the bot- 
tom of the tank with a force pump, which may be 
operated by hand, windmill, gas engine or hot- 
air engine. Another opening in the bottom de- 
livers water to the faucet in the house, yard or 
barn. As the water is pumped into the bottom 
of the tank the air above it, not having an outlet, 
is compressed. This pressure is increased and 
maintained by an automatic air valve. It does 
away with the elevated tank, and delivers water 
at an even temperature all year around. The 
tank and pipes leading to and from it are protect- 
ed from the weather. A pressure of fifty pounds 
is easily obtained, which equals the pressure from 
an elevated tank one hundred and ten feet high. 
This affords first-class fire protection and enables 
the country residents to have all the sanitary con- 



312 PEACTICAL PLUMBING 

veniences of a city home. A double system of 
this kind can also be installed, one for furnishing 
well or drinking water to the fixtures, and an- 
other one supplying soft water from the cistern. 

In Fig. 183 a steel storage tank is shown buried 
in the ground below the frost line, water is 
pumped into it by hand or windmill. This pump 
forces both air and water into the tank at the 
same time. A connection run to the surface near 
the house to a yard hydrant with hose connec- 
tion furnishes water for sprinkling and fire pro- 
tection, another branch supplies water to the 
barn, under pressure. 

In Fig. 184 a steel storage tank is shown placed 
in' the basement and supplied with a hand pump. 
These two illustrations will serve to give some 
idea of the extent to which a system of this kind 
can be put to use. The tank is practically inde- 
structible, and, unlike the elevated tank, requires 
no expense after it has been put in. "When the 
tank is one-half full of water, the air which origi- 
nally filled the entire tank will be compressed 
into the upper half of it and will exert a pressure 
of fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if a 
straight supply pipe was run from the bottom of 
the tank, this air pressure would force the water 
to a height of thirty-three feet. For ordinary 
elevation the best results are obtained by main- 
taining in the tank excess air pressure of ten 
pounds, that is, enough air to give ten pounds 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



313 




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PRACTICAL PLUMBING 



9*t$& yamsMid 




COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 315 

pressure when the tank contains no water. Thus 
equipped, a tank will deliver twice as much water 
as otherwise. 

Most of the country towns at the present day 
are supplied with efficient water systems, and it is 
a very easy matter to install a hydraulic system 
which supplies hot and cold soft water to every 
fixture in the house automatically and all of the 
time. One of the principal objects desired in the 
hydraulic system is to utilize the waste water 
from the hydraulic pump so that there will be 
no loss, which is quite an item when the water 
is paid for at so much per thousand feet. 

The system shown in Fig. 185 is a very simple 
and inexpensive one. The city water supply is 
run direct to the hydraulic pump, and the city 
water passing through it is piped direct to the 
fixtures at which cold hard water is desired. In 
the drawing this pipe supplies the closet tank and 
one faucet over the lavatory for drinking purposes 
in the bathroom, also one faucet over the sink 
and two connections to laundry tub, which is very 
convenient, as the cold water can be utilized for 
rinsing purposes, thereby saving a great deal of 
the soft water. The operation of the same is, that 
when any of these five faucets are opened, it per- 
mits the city water to pass through the pump and 
at the same time operate the pump, which pumps 
soft water from the cistern to the tank in the 
attic from which a pipe is run down to the base- 



316 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

ment with branches taken off at the different 
floors to supply cold soft water, hence, to the hot 
water heater tank, from there on to the heater, 
back to the tank and around to the different fix- 
tures supplying hot soft water. The return pipe 
prevents a dead end which necessitates wasting 
the soft water before the hot water begins to flow. 

A method is shown whereby it is possible when 
the cistern is emptied to fill either the city water 
supply only with city water, or the entire system 
without its passing through the pump by the ma- 
nipulation of three globe valves, designated as A, 
B and C. When the pump is pumping cistern 
water to the attic tank, valve B and C are closed, 
and valve A is opened. When the cistern is emp- 
tied, and it is desired to fill only the cold city 
water pipe with water, leave valve C closed, close 
valve A and open valve B, which permits the 
water to flow into the cold water pipe without 
passing through the pump. If it is desired to fill 
the entire system with city water, all that is neces- 
sary is to open valve C, which permits the water 
to flow up to the attic tank and down through 
the balance of the system. When this is done, 
valve I) on the overflow pipe should be closed af- 
ter the water begins to overflow, and not before, 
as the system would become air-bound. 

An overflow pipe is shown leading from the at- 
tic tank to the cistern within the house. If it is 
possible to run this overflow pipe out onto the 



COUNTEY WATER SUPPLY 317 

roof so that the overflow will return to the cistern 
through the eavestrough and downspout pipe to 
the cistern, it is best to do so, as the cistern water 
then has a chance to become aerated. The pipe to 
supply the sill cock or yard hydrant for sprink- 
ling purposes should be taken off at a point before 
the supply to pump, to prevent the unnecessary 
work of the pump when sprinking. In case of a 
basement closet being installed, a connection can 
be taken from the city water supply pipe run to 
the laundry tub, three-quarter-inch galvanized 
iron pipe is sufficiently large enough for all of 
the main supply pipes with one-half-inch branches 
to the different fixtures. These hydraulic rams 
are manufactured so as to work, and work suc- 
cessfully, at as low a pressure as ten pounds per 
square inch. 




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INDEX 

A 

PAGE 

Air composition of 227 

Air compressibility of 227 

Air vent pipe for house drain 12- 13 

Autogenous soldering — lead burning 108-112 

Burning vertical seams 110-111 

Compressed oxygen and coal gas Ill 

Definition of term 108-109 

Explanation of process 109-111 

Most simple form of 109 

Skill required in 108 

Use of red hot copper bit 111-112 

Where used 108 

Automatic sewage ejector 291-303 

Action of device 299-300 

Air compressing apparatus 296-299 

Construction of 293-296 

For use in city buildings 300 

Installation 300-303 

Principles of operation 291-292 

Shone pneumatic ejector 292-300 

Sources of power for operating . 297 

Switch board and motor 297-299 

Automatic syphon 308 

B 

Basement drains 18- 24 

Backwater valve — function of 19- 20 

Combination strainer and back water seal. 23 

Deep water-seal for 22 

Extra heavy for barns 20- 21 

Installation— method of 18-19-20 

326 



INDEX 327 

PAGE 
Trap — necessity for , 19 

Types of basement drains 20-21-22 

Branched joints — wiping of 101-103 

Badly shaped joint 102 

Joint made by using a thick cloth 101-103 

Proper methods of making 102-103 

Brass pipes — weight of per lineal foot 185 

C 

Cesspools 139-140 

Circular 140 

Hydrant 139 

Rectangular — for cellar 140 

Stable use .139-140 

Slop sink — with bell trap and strainer. . . .139-140 

Chicago Plumbing Code 241-285 

Area drains — when to trap 268 

Barn drainage .276-277 

Bath tub — drum trap 256 

Blow off pipes 267 

Catch basins— where prohibited 269 

Catch basins — for kitchen wastes 269-271 

Catch basins — when to dispense with.... 271 

Cellar drains 268 

Chimney ventilation 252 

Connections outside of buildings 246 

Connected wastes 256 

Cleanouts — tapping pipes 250-251 

Definition of terms ^ 247-248-249 

Drainage, and vent fittings 254-255 

Drains connected with sewers. . . . 246-247 

Earthenware trap connections 275 

Ejectors 254 

Fee — when to be paid . 282 

Fittings — quality — cleanout fittings 250 

Fittings — prohibited 251 



328 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 
Chicago Plumbing Code — 

Floor washes in basement 268 

Gas water heaters — permit to install 283 

Gas water heaters — structural requirements 284 

High pressure boiler — supply tank 244 

House boilers — sediment pipes 262 

House tanks — linings prohibited 266 

Inspection certificate 282 

Inspection test 277-278-279 

Iron pipe — where used 252 

Iron pipe — quality — weights 249-250 

Lead pipe — kind permitted 242 

Lead pipe — not to extend within partitions 252 

Lead pipe — wiped joints — brass pipe 252 

Long hopper closets 263-264 

Metal connections — requirements 245-246 

New plumbing — repairs 244-245 

Old work remodeled 279 

Open plumbing 274 

Overflow pipes — connections of 261 

Peppermint test for alterations 279 

Permit for use of water 241-242 

Pipe supports — hooks prohibited 251 

Pipe joints to be filled 251 

Pipes above main building 253 

Plans— plan and elevation 281-282 

Plumber's notification — inspection 277 

Prohibited closets 274 

Rain water leaders — where prohibited. . . . 266 

Rain water leaders — when to trap 266-267 

Rain water leaders — connections 272 

Refrigerator wastes — sizes — traps 261-262 

Revent— omitted— when 273-274 

Revented washout closets 275 

Service pipe — joints 242-243 

Single tap for several buildings 243 



INDEX 329 

PAGE 

Chicago Plumbing Code — 

Slip joints — ground joints 276 

Soil and waste pipes — when to extend. . . . 253 

Soil and waste pipes — sizes of 247-255 

Special permits 276-277 

Stop cocks 243 

Steam pipes — condensers — vents 267 

Straight tees — where prohibited 252 

Tapping street main 242 

Temperature of water entering sewer. .. .267-268 

Trap — where prohibited 255 

Traps — placing of — water seal 256-257 

Trap revents — concealed partitions 255-256 

Urinals— automatic flushing of. 272-273 

Urinals — automatic flush tanks for 262-263 

Urinals — construction . 272 

Urinals — flush prohibited materials 272 

Urinals — wastes — screens 273 

Vent pipes — sizes of 253-254 

Vent pipes — revents 257-258 

Vent pipes — in residences 258-259 

Vent pipes — lengths of horizontal 260 

Vent pipes — reconnected 260 

Vent pipes — reconnected — exceptions .... 274 

Ventilation — water closet 279 

Vertical lines of pipe — floor rests . 251 

Vertical pipes through roof 252-253 

Waste pipes in four story buildings 259 

Waste pipes — horizontal prohibited 254 

Water closets — revent .....: 257 

Water closets — flush tanks 262 

Window area in toilet compartments. .. .280-281 

Water closets under sidewalks 264-266 

Wood sinks and tubs — where prohibited. . 268 

Cleanouts — with brass trap screw 137-138 

Cleanouts — with hand hole and cover. .. .137-138 

Condensation — what it is 226 



330 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Country water supply 309-317 

Compressed air system 310-315 

Delivery of water — estimating 310 

Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 

Pumping apparatus 312-314 

Steel storage tank — underground 312-313 

Steel storage tank — in basement 313-314 

Storage tank system 310-314 



D 

Delivery of water — rule for estimating 310 

Diameters, areas, and circumferences of 

circles 238-239-240 

Disposal of sewage 304-308 

Automatic syphon 308 

Concrete basins — system of 308 

Epidemics — causes of 304 

Leaching cesspool 305 

Out door water closet 304-305 

Pollution of drinking water supply 305 

Sub-surface irrigation 305-306-308 

Systems adapted to localities 304 

Drain pipes — capacities of 27 

Drain and trap for hospital operating rooms. . 22- 24 

Drainage fittings 113-140 

Cross tapped for iron pipe 117-118 

Double Y 118-119 

Double half Y-branch 118-119 

Half Y 118-119 

Half Y-saddle hub 119-120 

Inverted Y-branch 119-120 

Plain cross 118-119 

Plain T-branch — sanitary T-branch 117-118 

Quarter bends, with heel and side outlets. 114-115 
Sanitary cross 118-119 



INDEX 31 1 

PAGE 
Drainage fittings — 

Sanitary cross tapped for iron pipe 117 118 

Sanitary bend — long quarter 114 115 

Soil and waste pipe fittings 113-121 

Soil pipe bends— 1/16 to y A 113-114-115 

T-branch soil pipe 114-115-116 

T-saddle hub 119-120 

T-branch, Y-branch — trap screw 121 

Ventilating branch pipe — plain 119-121 

Ventilating cap— Y-saddle hub 119-120 

Y-branch— half Y-branch 114-117 

Drainage pipe — size of 10- 12 

Drainage pipe — method of laying 10- 12 

Drainage system — correct installation 12 

Drinking fountains — solid porcelain 4 .172-175 

Drinking fountains — marble „ .173-174 



E 

Electrical thawing device . . . .286-290 

Advantages in use of . . . 286 

Capacity of 290 

Current required to operate 289 

Weight of 290 

Westinghouse heavy service outfit. 287-288 

Westinghouse light service outfit 289-290 

Evaporation — explanation of process 225 

Equation of pipes 220-221 



F 

Fire clay — substitute for 235 

Fire engine house — plumbing for 37- 40 

Fresh air inlets 37 -38 

Fresh air inlets for soil pipe 13 

Friction of liquids in pipes 226-227 



332 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

H 

PAGE 

Hopper traps 130-137 

Half S-trap, high pattern for iron pipe. .130-131 

Half S-trap, plain with hub vent ...134-135 

Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . . .134-135 

S-trap — high pattern for lead pipe 130-131 

S-trap — plain for lead pipe 131-132-133 

S-trap — high pattern hand hole and cover.. 131-132 

S-trap — high pattern, hub and vent 131-132 

S-trap — high pattern, for iron pipe 133-134 

Three-quarter S-trap — high pattern — hub 

vent 130-131 

Trap caps — brass 136-137 

Horizontal joints — wiping of 96 

Horizontal joints — three examples of 96 

Horse power — definition of 225 

Horse power — pounds water required to pro- 
duce 225 

Hot water plumbing 197-218 

Combination reservoir and heater . . 209-210 

Explosion of water back — cause of 204 

Gas heated device — connections for. .205-206-207 

Gravity supply tank system 200-201 

Hot water — natural course of flow 203 

Kitchen boiler— function of 201-202 

Kitchen boiler — connections of 207-208 

Noise in pipes — causes of 203-204 

Simple system — hot water supply 197-198 

System for supplying three floors 199-200 

Vertical,, or horizontal boilers — connections 208 

Hot water supply 186-196 

Cold water supply pipe — requirements of. . 188 

Cylinder system — advantages of 186 

Draw off pipes — connections for 189 

Draw off pipes— path of 192-193 

Emptying cock — location of 188 



INDEX 333 

PAGE 

Expansion pipe — function of 189 

Expansion pipe — path of 187 

Flow pipe — path of 186-187 

Flow pipe — path of in tank system 191-192 

Return pipe — path of 186-187 

Return pipe — path of in tank system 192 

Secondary return — location of 189-190 

Sizes of tank and cylinder 195 

Water circulation in system 189 

House drain — function of 8 

House sewer — connection of to main sewer. . . 14 

House sewer — pitch of, toward main sewer. . . 14- 15 

House sewer — size of — how determined 15 

Hydraulic ram — operation of 309-310 

J 

Joint wiping 92-107 

How to use the cloth 98-99 

Importance of skill in 92- 93 

Length of joint 93 

Thin cloth — objections to 97- 98 

Wiping cloth — manipulation of 95- 96 

Wiping cloth — making of 97-98 

Wiping cloth — material for 94- 95 

L 

Lead — fusing temperature of 68 

Lead — specific gravity of 65 

Lead traps— full S— half S— P 126-127-128 

Liquid measure — table of 229 

M 

Manhole for house drainage system 10 

Measurement of wrought iron pipe 224 

Modern stable — plumbing for 41- 43 



334 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

P 

PAGE 

Pipe — area of — how to find 227 

Pipe — copper — weight of per lineal foot 185 

Pipe — to find number of gallons in one foot 

length 232 

Pipe — to find weight of lead pipe when diam- 
eter and thickness are known 232 

Pipe supports 37 

Plan of piping for basement 25- 26 

Plaster of paris — to prevent setting too quickly 234 

Plumber's solder — how to make 77-78-79 

Plumber's solder— -burning — danger of 80- 81 

Plumber's solder — zinc poisoned 81 

Plumber's tools 210-212-216 

Plumbing — recent improvements in 7- 8 

Pressure — action of upon a liquid 226 



R 

Rain leaders 16 

Roof connections . . ., 34-35-36 

Roughing in 25- 52 

Meaning of 25 

Plumbing for two story residence 43- 52 

Plumbing for modern stable 41- 42 

Refrigerators — waste and vent pipes 43 

Rubber force cup for cleaning bath tub 215 

Running trap for house drain 12 

Rust joint — cement for 235 



S 

Sanitary plumbing 141-176 

Bathroom — construction 141-142 

Bathtub — corner porcelain type 144-145 

Bathtub — porcelain enameled 144-147-148 

Bathtub — porcelain roll rim 142-144 



INDEX 335 

PAGE 
Bathtub — sitz; with nickel plated fittings . 144-149 
Bathtub — showing proper connections. . .144-152 

Bathtubs— types of 142-149 

Footbath — enameled porcelain 144-150 

Spray, and shower baths — rubber curtain.,144-151 

Sewer — requirements of 8 

Sewer pipe — materials — methods of laying. ... 8 

Sewage disposal — basic principles of 15 

Service pipes — table of capacities 183 

Sheet copper — how to clean 234-235 

Sheet lead — table, weights and thickness.... 196 

Sinks — construction and installation 175-176 

Soil pipe 27- 37 

Cutting of 27 

Joints — materials required for 30 

Making joints in 29- 30 

Running long line of 30- 33 

Under basement floor 37 

Solder — for plumber's work 62- 76 

Alloy that expands in cooling 74 

Composition of plumber's solder 62- 63 

' Contraction in cooling 73- 74 

Effect of heat on solids 71-72 

Expansion of solder when melting 73 

Flowing of 68- 69 

Fluxes for 69 

How to judge good solder 63- 64 

Indications of impure solder 64- 65 

Result of mixing tin and lead 72- 73 

Rule governing hardness of 71 

Soldering fluids 69 

Sulphur as a flux 66- 67 

Zinc — detrimental to solder 65- 66 

Zinc — how to extract from solder 66 

Soldering copper — care of 236 

Soldering fluxes 82- 83 



336 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Steam tight joint — how to make. 235 

Store, or office building — plan for plumbing of. 37- 39 

T 

Table — decimal parts of an inch 75 

Table — fall per foot for sewers and soil pipes. 16 

Table — melting points of various alloys 75 

Table — to find weight of metals in pounds. ... 76 

Table — weight of one square foot of various 

metals 76 

Tanks — rule for finding capacities in gallons. . 230 

Thawing device — electrical 286-290 

Three story tenement — plumbing for 30- 32 

Tin — specific gravity of 65 

Tinning iron — method of 83 

Traps 53-61-122-218 

Back venting — proper method of 57- 58 

Bower trap 61 

Counter vent . 217 

Caulking joints in ; 218 

Cudell trap 60- 61 

Drum trap 59 

Full S-trap 123 

Full S-trap— with top vent 125-126 

Function of trap in sewer pipe 53 

Half S-trap 123 

Half S-trap, with hand hole and cover. . .123-125 

Half S-trap, with top vent 125-126 

How a trap may be syphoned 56- 57 

Kinds of traps for sewage 217 

Loss of seal in a trap 54- 56 

Non-syphon traps 57- 60 

P-trap 54- 55 

Purpose of traps 217 

Running trap — hub vent 126-127 

Running trap — hand hole and cover 122 



INDEX 337 

PAGE 

S-trap — advantages of 54 

S-trap, with hand hole and cover. .. .123-124-125 
S-traps — extra long — plain and vented. . .129-130 

Self scouring trap 60- 61 

Syphon trap 53 

Three-quarter S-trap . 54-55-123 

Three-quarter S-trap, with hand hole. .. .123-125 

Three-quarter S-trap, with top vent 125-126 

Trap for house drainage system 10- 11 

Two-hub vent-traps 122 

U 

Upright joints — wiping of 99-101 

Urinals 162-167 

Complete toilet room — hotel, or office. . . .164-167 

Corner porcelain urinal . . . 163-164 

Flat-back porcelain style 162-163 

Individual stall urinals 164-165-166 

Useful information 224-240 

Air — volume of, in one pound 225 

Anthracite coal — cu. ft. in one ton of 225 

Anthracite coal — wt., of one bushel 225 

Area of pipe— how to find 227 

Barrel — to find contents of 231 

Boiler horse power 224 

Boiler scale — how to remove . 233 

Circle — to find circumference of 230 

Circle — to find area of 230 

Circle — to find diameter from given area. 230 
Circle — to find diameter of, to equal area 

of a given square 230 

Cement — how to make .233-234 

Cement — for iron and stone 234 

Cement — for leaky steam boilers 234 

Cleaning rusted iron 233 

Cleaning rusted brass 233 



338 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 
Useful information — 

Cleaning marble 233 

Coal required per sq. ft. of grate — lbs 224 

Copper pipes — weight of, per lineal foot. . 185 

Delivery of water — rule for calculating. . 310 
Diameters, circumferences, areas of circles.238-240 

Evaporation of water 224 

Equalizing pipes 228 

Heat unit — definition of 224 

Heat units required per horse power 225 

Heat units in 1 lb. anthracite coal 225 

Rectangle — to find area of 229 

Thermometers — comparison of 227 

Triangle — to find area of 229 

Water — expansion of, in freezing 228 

Water — discharge of through given orifice 

at different pressures 228 

Water — height of column for 1 lb. pressure 

per sq. in ,. .. 229 

Water — number of gallons in 1 cu. ft 229 

Water — pressure upon side of tank 231-232 

Water — point of greatest density 228 

Water — to find head in feet ; pressure being 

known 231 

Water — to find pressure in lbs. per sq. in.. . 230 
Water — to find required head for given ve- 
locity 230-231 

Water — velocity of flow through pipe .... 231 
Water volume and weight of 1 gallon. . . .228-229 

Water — weight of one cubic inch 229 

Wrought iron pipes — measurement of..,. 224 



V 

Vacuum — meaning of 225 

Vent-opening — location of for house drain. ... 10 

Vent-pipes — location of 27- 28 



INDEX 339 

PAGE 

Vertical section for two story building 25- 28 

Vitrified sewer pipe 8-10 

Connection with iron pipe 8- 9 

Method of installation 9 

Trap and vent opening 9-10 

W 

Washbowls 164-172 

Connections for 172-174 

Drilling slab for clamp holes 168 

Half circle, roll edge — high back. 169-170 

Independent bowls 168-169 

Making joint between bowl and slab 165-168 

Roll edge bowl — removable strainer 169-170 

Roll edge oval bowl, with overflow 169-171 

Roll edge slab and bowl — ideal waste. . . .172-173 
Setting of bowls to marble slabs 164-168 

Water , 219-227 

Boiling point of 221-227 

Characteristics of 219 

Composition of 219 

Expansion of when heated 225-227 

Expansion of when changed to steam. . . . 225 

Freezing temperature 221-222 

Hardness of water 222 

Head — meaning of explained 220 

Impurities, poisons, etc., in water 222 

Maximum density — point of 222 

Pressure of, in pounds per Sq. in 219-220 

Pressure of, at different elevations 184 

Purifying by aeration 223 

Tests of for purity 236-237 

Unit of measurement for 219 

Weight of— per cubic foot 219-224 

Water closets 149-162 

Flushing rim — hopper style 154-155 



340 PRACTICAL PLUMBING 

PAGE 

Prison water closet 157-159 

Seat-operated types 154-156-157 

Syphon jet low down tank 156-158 

Washout closet, with front outlet 154-155 

Washout closet, connections for 159-162 

Water pipes and fixtures 27- 23 

Water service 177-240 

Corporation cock 177 

First step in installation of 177 

Size of service leading to building 177 

Service pipes in building 178 

Stop cocks in building 178 

Stop cocks — where required 177-178 

Tapping street main 177 

Testing the water service 179-181 

Testing — with air pressure 180 

Testing — with peppermint test 180-181 

Testing — with smoke test 180 

Testing — with hydraulic pressure 179 

Wiped joints — preparation of S4-91-104-105 

Importance of care in 84 

Joints for tin-lined pipes 105 

Joints for copper pipes 105-106 

Method of tinning copper 106-107 

Method of strengthening copper pipe .... 107 
Preparing pipe ends — three methods of. . 90 

Preparing pipe ends — care required in. . . .. 91 

Rasping — instructions for 87- 88 

Skill required in 86 

Soil — best method of making 88 

Soil — proper ingredients for 88 

Soil pot and tool 88 

Soiling a pipe — correct method of 88- 89 

Solder — proper heat for 89 

Tools required for 86 

Wrought iron pipe — table of 181-182 



HOT WATER HEATING 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OP STEAM AND 
HOT WATER HEATING. 

The first cost of a steam heating system is from 
20 to 30 per cent less than that of a hot water 
system. This is due to the smaller sizes of pipes 
and radiators used on steam work. The cost of 
operation is however in favor of the hot water 
system. 

When steam radiators are shut off they cool 
much more rapidly than hot water radiators. 
This proves to be an advantage in favor of the 
hot water system. 

A steam plant requires much more attention 
and skill on the part of the operator than the hot 
water system. With regard to freezing, the pref- 
erence is in favor of steam, and in large buildings 
this is often a matter of great importance. A 
hot water system may be run during mild weath- 
er with much less heat than a steam: system 
which must always be brought to a temperature 
of 212 degrees Fahrenheit before any heat is felt. 

HEATING SYSTEMS. 

A steam or water heating system involves in 
its construction the following: 
A steam boiler or water heater. 

7 



8 HEATING SYSTEMS 

Pipe and pipe fittings. 

Valves. 

Radiators. 

Air valves. 

It also requires an expansion tank (water heat- 
ing) for its successful operation. 

A good chimney. 

Good fuel. 

Good management. 

For heating a house or a small flat building the 
round sectional steam boilers or water heaters are 
unquestionably the best up to 1,500 square feet of 
radiation. 

For capacities above this limitation, rectangu- 
lar sectional steam boilers or water heaters are 
used. 

Ventilation. Ventilation is a most important 
matter in connection with heating. All living 
rooms should be ventilated, and the greater the 
number of occupants the room contains, the great- 
er should be the amount of ventilation required. 

In the ordinary house, ventilation is obtained 
from the fresh air entering the rooms through the 
windows and doors, for the ordinary occupants of 
the rooms. 

Under ordinary conditions, an adult requires 
about 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour. 

The principal cause of the vitiation of the air 
in a room is the respiration of the occupants. 
Moisture and gases arising from the occupants of 



HEATING SYSTEMS 9 

the room also tend to make the air foul. Lighting 
and heating are other causes. 

The air in a room is to some extent changed by 
diffusion, but preferably by the entrance through 
registers provided for the purpose, of fresh air 
that has been warmed, and by the outward pas- 
sage through flues, of the foul air. 

The foul air should leave a room near the floor. 
An open fireplace furnishes an excellent means of 
ventilating a room. 

The foul air is heavier than the purer air, and 
therefore settles to the bottom of the room. By 
drawing the colder and therefore heavier air, 
which is at the bottom, the warmer air at the up- 
per part of the room settles to- fill this space, thus 
creating a circulation, and making the heating 
more effective. 

Heat. In what is known as the molecular the- 
ory, all bodies are made up of rapidly vibrating 
particles, the hottest bodies being those whose 
particles move or vibrate with the greatest rapid- 
ity, and through the greatest distances. The con- 
clusion is therefore reached that heat is not a 
substance, but a form of motion, and that this 
condition may be transferred from one body to 
another. This theory explains in a simple man- 
ner the various actions of heat. 

Upon being heated, the particles of a body tend 
to repel each, other, and as a result of the action of 
the heat the body expands, and this expansion if 



10 HEATING SYSTEMS 

carried far enough, finally produces a change in 
the state of the body, the point at which such 
change takes place varying with each different 
substance. As an example of this change a cake 
of ice when subjected to heat, melts and becomes) 
water, and this water when subjected to further 
heat again changes its state and becomes steam. 

Heat may be transferred from one body to an- 
other in three ways, by conduction, by convection 
and by radiation. 

By conduction is meant the direct contact of 
one body with another. A heated bar of iron will 
transmit heat to another bar when in contact with 
it. 

Heat is also transferred from one body to an- 
other by convection, by means of water or other 
fluids, which convey it from one point to another. 

Heat is transferred from one body to another by 
radiation through such a medium as currents of 
air. 



STEAM HEATING. 

The low pressure gravity and the high pressure 
steam systems are the ones in general use. 

The chief feature of the low pressure gravity 
system of steam heating is that all condensation 
returns to the boiler by gravity. 

A pressure of steam below 10 pounds above the 
atmospheric pressure is low pressure steam. 

The low pressure steam system is chiefly used 
in house heating, because it is safer than high, 
pressure steam, and as it works at a lower pres- 
sure is more economical to use, and requires less 
attention. 

Not less than a l 1 /^ inch pipe should be 
used for a steam main, and this diameter should 
not be run for a greater length than 25 feet. 

Eegardless of the amount of work to be done, 
no steam riser less than 1 inch in diameter should 
b*> used. 

If too small the pipes will sometimes cause the 
radiators to fill with water. 

The steam main should be run as high as pos- 
sible above the boiler. A distance of 18 inches or 
more should be allowed if conditions will permit 
of it. 

Branches should always be taken from the top 

11 



12 STEAM HEATING 

of the steam supply mains or at an angle of 45 
degrees, but never from the side. 

Branches should not be taken from the side of 
the main, a,s water hammering and the forcing of 
condensed water from the main into the radiators 
may be result. 

Branches should be run full size from the main 
to the risers and connected with the latter by a 
reducing elbow. 

The horizontal branch should be one size larger 
than the riser, if more than 6 or 8 feet in length, 
as the circulation is not so strong on a horizontal 
as on a vertical line of pipe. 

A steam main should have a pitch of at least 1 
inch for every 10 feet of length. 

Branches should have a pitch of at least 1 inch 
for each 5 feet. 

Carelessness in the alignment of steam pipes is 
liable to form pockets or traps which will impede 
the circulation and cause hammering, due to the 
condensed water remaining in the pockets. 

When necessary to make a direct rise in order 
to get over an obstruction or to increase the head 
room, the pocket formed should be dripped by a 
small pipe into the return, 



STEAM BOILERS. 

Experience has shown that steam boilers made 
of cast iron are the most reliable and most effi- 
cient for heating purposes. No other metals which 
can be used for this purpose deteriorate so little 
from corrosion as cast iron under like conditions. 
A cast iron steam boiler cannot explode. Being 
built up in sections they are easy to set up and 
involve the least amount of trouble and expense. 
In operation they are simplicity itself and their 
management is easily understood. 

The capacity of a steam boiler should be at least 
25 per cent in excess of the total duty required 
by the radiation and pipe system for direct radia- 
tion. When indirect radiation is used add 50 per 
cent to the above. 

In locating a steam boiler, be sure and ascertain 
by careful measurements that it will stand low 
enough so that the water line will be 18 inches 
or more below the lowest point of the steam 
mains. 

The boiler should be placed on a solid founda- 
tion and as close as possible to the chimney flue. 

The proper size of coal to use in a given size of 
steam boiler is a very important factor to its suc- 
cessful operation. As a rule the best results have 
been obtained by the use of range or stove coal in 

13 



STEAM BOILERS 

round boilers or heaters. For rectangular steam 
boilers good results have been obtained by the use 
of stove coal for the smaller sizes and egg coal for 
the larger ones. If bituminous or soft coal be 




Fig. 1. 

used instead of anthracite or hard coal, a boiler 
at least one size larger should be installed. 

Round Steam Boilers. The boiler shown in Fig. 
1 is entirely of oast iron construction, so arranged 



STEAM BOILERS 15 

as to amply provide for expansion and contrac- 
tion. The only joints or connections are formed of 
heavy cast iron threaded nipples, making a per- 
fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any 
cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all 
necessity of packing of any kind. The general 
construction of steam boilers is as follows: 

The circular base, or ashpit, which also forms 
the support for the grate, is substantially made of 
cast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation 
of ashes. Resting on this is the firepot section, 
shown in Fig. 2. This section, being one com- 
plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy 
pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- 
lutely free from mechanical imperfections. In 
the center of the top of this section is a large 
opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- 
nects it with a closed section, shown in the right 
hand upper view, Fig. 2. This first, or interme- 
diate section, is of less diameter than the top of 
the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- 
termediate section and attached to it in the same 
manner, as described for the connection of the 
firepot, there is an open section shown in the right 
hand upper view, Fig. 2, which is of the same 
diameter as the top of the firepot and entirely fills 
the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top 
of this is placed another, closed section, and on 
top of this again comes the top section, which is 
either the steam dome, farming the steam boiler, 



16 



STEAM BOILERS 




Fig. 2. 



or the upper water section, forming the water 
heater, all connected together m the maimer cle- 



STEAM BOILERS 17 

scribed, with screw nipples, the top section, or 
dome, having the necessary tappings for the sup- 
ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for water. 

Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the 
top of the firepot section to the top of the upper 
section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- 
ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- 
ments and are interchangeable and easily applied, 
with no possibility of rusting, wearing out or 
breaking. They form in themselves a perfect 
chamber for the retention of products of combus- 
tion, compelling these to follow such channels as 
will give best results. 

Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- 
ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect 
casting, and free from any possible chance of 
leakages. The inner surface of the firepot has 
projecting into it all around the sides a multipli- 
city of iron points, just long enough to prevent 
the water contact from chilling the fire and mak- 
ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a 
uniform fire around the edges as well as in the 
center. The firepots are of sufficient depth to in- 
sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most 
economical heat-producing proposition for low 
pressure heating. 

Grate. The grate is of the triangular form and 
is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- 
tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing 
in ash pit. 



18 



STEAM BOILERS 



On all the larger size boilers the grates are fit- 
ted with a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus 
prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre- 
vents their warping. 

Simplicity of the Grates. The construction ot 
the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of any 
one bar of the whole grate being changed without 
the assistance of skilled labor. 




Pig. 3. 



Fig. 3 shows a vertical cross-section of a steam 
boifer* 



STEAM BOILERS 



19 



Rectangular Sectional Boilers. The vertical 
sectional type of steam boiler has been on the mar- 
ket and in all forms for a number of years. There 
are no new ideas that can be safely exploited in 
this line. The demand is for a simple, practical, 
easily handled device that will absolutely endure 
the work appropriated for it. 




Pig. 



The boiler shown in Fig. 4 is strong, of good ap- 
pearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, and, 
so far as can be determined from exterior appear- 
ances, a mbBt satfefacl/o»ry kteater. The good opin- 



20 



STEAM BOILERS 



ion already formed of the heater is further 
strengthened by reference to views of the inter- 
mediate and rear sections shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 
Hy reference to these cuts it will be seen that 
wery possible advantage is taken of the fire sur- 
foee, H being the belief that, unless great good is 




Fig. 5. 



accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there 
will be but little assistance obtained from the 
flues. 

Eirepots. Firepots of this type of boilers are 
deep- — to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, 
are covered with numbers of iron projections to 
prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex- 



STEAM BOILERS 



21 



posed water surface and yet secure such perfect 
combustion as will quickly impart to the water 
the heat from the fuel and permit of maintaining 
at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of 
the firepot. 



nun 

nun 



Fig. 6. 

Boiler capacity. T!he capacity of the boiler 
should be at least 25 per cent in excess of the total 
duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe 
system. 

Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total 
radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
mains, plus 25 per cent excess boiler capacity, 
which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 



22 



STEAM BOILERS 



required. The same result may be arrived at by 
adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 

When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 




sq. ft. 



Pig. 7. 



ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and when 
indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent. 
Example : 

Total direct radiation= 450 
One direct-indirect radiator= 60 

One indirect radiator= 190 

Too 

25 per cent for surface of mains= 112.5 
33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 
50 per cent on indirect radiator= 95 

"927.5 
25 per cent excess capacity= 231.9 



Boiler capaeity=1159.4 



STEAM BOILERS 23 

Safety Valves. While not an absolute necessi- 
ty, some form of low-pressure safety valve is gen- 
erally used on the steam boiler of a low-pressure 
heating plant. Forms of low-pressure safety 




Pig. 8. 

valves are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the one shown 
in Fig. 7 is spring controlled and capable of ad- 
justment for different pressures, while that shown 
in Fig. 8 has a ball weight instead of a spring 



STEAM BOILERS 




Pig. 9. 



STEAM BOILEES 



23 




wis. io. 



26 STEAM BOILERS 

and is consequently non-adjustable except by 
changing the weight. 

Water Column. Every steam boiler should be 
equipped with a water column with water gauge 
and try-cocks as shown in Fig. 9. A combina- 
tion water column is shown in Fig. 10, with steam 
gauge on the top of the column. 

Damper Regulator. While an automatic dam- 
per regulator is not as essential to a water heater 
as to a steam boiler, it is a very useful device, and 
when used prevents overheating and occasions 
great economy in fuel. An automatic regulator 
for a steam boiler is shown in Fig. 11. Check draft 




Fig. 11. 

dampers, which are controlled by automatic regu- 
lators, are shown in Fig. 12. 

The damper regulator consists of a hollow bowl 
formed by two castings bolted together, with a 
rubber diaphragm between them, the lower cast- 
ing being connected to the steam space of the 
boiler by means of a short nipple. Through an 
opening in the top of the upper casting a plunger 
works, and across this plunger and connected to 
an upright lip on the edge of the diaphragm cast- 



STEAM BOILERS 



27 



ing is a bar, from the ends of which chains con- 
nect to the draft door and check damper door of 
the boiler. 

As the steam pressure rises, the pressure 
against the under side of the rubber diaphragm 
is transmitted to the plunger which is. raised, 





Fig. 12. 



thereby operating the rod or lever, and the chains 
connecting with the draft and check damper 
doors. The sliding weight usually on the rod 
may be set so that the leverage may be smaller or 
greater, according to the pressure of steam car- 
ried on the apparatus, before the operation of 



28 



STEAM BOILERS 



the doors will take place. By means of the dam- 
per regulator the rise and fall of temperature in 
the boiler may so regulate the draft that an even 
temperature may be obtained. 

The chains should be so set that the draft door 
and check draft will each be closed when the regu- 
lator lever is level, and there is no steam in the 
boiler. 

Pressure Gauges. The hollow spring in the 
gauge, shown in Fig. 13, is so shaped and arranged 





Fig. 13. 



and the mechanism is such that the vertical as 
well as the horizontal movement of its free ends 
is fully utilized. It thereby permits the use of 
springs 100 per cent stronger than can be used in 
any other gauge, so preventing their settling un- 
der any pressure which may be indicated upon 
its dial. 

The gauge shown in Fig. 14 may be used for 



STEAM BOILERS 29 

indicating either pressure or vacuum, as the case 
may be. It is graduated for pressure in pounds 
per square inch, and for vacuum in inches of mer^ 
cury in column or pounds per square inch, as 
may be desired. 




Fig. 14. 



Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range 
in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes 
to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are 
generally made of galvanized iron. T!he pipe 
should be carried to the chimney as directly as 
possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- 
sistance and diminish the draft. When the draft 
is known to be good the smoke pipe may pur- 
posely be made longer to allow the gases to part 
with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 



30 STEAM BOILERS 

ney. Where a smoke pipe passes through a parti- 
tion it should be protected by a double perforated 
metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter 
than the pipe. 

The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed 
within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 
inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- 
ter. The connection between the smoke pipe and 
the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing 
cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the 
draft. A collar to make the connection tight 
should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from 
the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into 
the flue. 

Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should 
have walls 8 inches in thickness, unless terra cotta 
linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work 
is required. Except in small houses, where an 
8x8 flue may be used, the nominal size of the 
smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a 
margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for 
a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should 
be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be 
reckoned at its full area, as the corners are of lit- 
tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very little 
more effective than one of circular form 8 inches 
in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of 
the chimney should be carried above the highest 
point of the roof, unless provided with a suitable 
top or hood. 



STEAM BOILERS 



31 



Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct 
Steam Radiation 



Square Feet of 


Diameter of 


Square or 


Steam Radiation 


Round Flue 


Rectangular Flue 


250 


8 inches 


8 in. x 8 : 


n. 


300 


8 inches 


8 in. x 8 


In. 


400 


8 inches 


8 in. x 8 in. 


500 


10 inches 


8 in. x 12 i 


n. 


600 


10 inches 


8 in. x 12 : 


n. 


700 


10 inches 


8 in. x 12 : 


n. 


800 


12 inches 


12 in. x 12 


n. 


900 


12 inches 


12 in. x 12 ] 


m. 


1000 


12 inches 


12 in. x 12 in. 


1200 


12 inches 


12 in. x 12 ] 


in. 


1400 


14 inchaa 


12 in. x 16 in. 


1600 


14 inches 


12 in. x 16 in. 


1800 


14 inches 


12 in. x 16 in. 


2000 


14 inches 


12 in. x 16 in. 


2200 


16 inches 


16 in. x 16 in. 


3000 


16 inches 


16 in. x 16 in. 


3500 


18 inches 


16 in. x 20 in. 


5000 


18 inches 


16 in. x 20 in. 



Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of 
chemical action, accompanied by the generation 
of heat. When such action takes place slowly the 
heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when 
it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, 
coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the burn- 
ing of ordinary fuel, the carbon and hydrogen of 
the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and 
produce combustion, without which no material 
results may be obtained from the fuel. 

Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- 
gen, without which it cannot take place. 



82 STEAM BOILERS 

Combustion is estimated by the number of 
pounds of fuel consumed per hour by one square 
foot of grate surface. 

One square foot of grate will consume about 5 
pounds of hard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds 
of soft coal, under a natural draft. 

For iy% to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one 
cubic foot of water will be evaporated. 

A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- 
ficient work than one of less depth. 

The use of too large coal is attended with large 
air spaces between the pieces, and this large 
amount of air is too great for the gases escaping 
from the combustion of the coal, allowing the 
gases to escape into the chimney flue unburned. 

The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it 
packs down so compactly as to prevent the admis- 
sion of the proper amount of air through the grate 
to produce good combustion. 



Pipe Systems. The three systems of heating 
described: The direct, indirect and direct-indi- 
rect radiation, are governed by the same rales in 
the matter of piping and steam supply, requiring 
only special rules for proportioning the amount 
of heating surface and for the arrangement of air 
supply. There are the one-pipe and two-pipe sys- 
tems, with several forms and combinations of each, 
and for the steam supply there are high and low- 
pressure systems, exhaust systems, gravity sys- 
tems and vacuum systems. 

The essentials of a heating system are : A source 
of steam supply, a system of piping to conduct the 
steam from the source of supply to the radiators, 
a series of radiators or radiating surfaces, a sys- 
tem of return pipes through which the condensed 
water from the radiators may be removed. 

It may be more briefly stated that the prime re- 
quisites for a steam heating system are: The 
source of steam supply, the radiating surface and 
a system of pipes connecting them. Should, how- 
ever, the supply and return pipes be embodied in 
the same system, it is just as important to arrange 
to dispose of the condensed water as it is to supply 
steam to the radiators. 

One-pipe System. The simplest form of steam 
heating system is known as the one-pipe gravity 
return system. The steam is generated in the 

33 



34 STEAM BOILERS 

boiler, flows through the pipes to the radiators, 
the condensed water as it is formed in the radia- 
tors draining out along the bottom of the pipes 
and back to the boiler by gravity, to be re-evapor- 




Fig. 15. 

ated into steam. This system may be used only in 
a very small plant, and one- in which the pipes 
should be made of large size and given a very de- 
cided pitch toward the boiler. 

One-pipe System With Separate Return. In 
the system shown in Fig. 15 the main in the base- 



STEAM BOILERS 35 

ment is pitched so a,s to drain away from the 
boiler, and at its end a return pipe is connected 
and led back to the boiler, entering it below the 
water-line. In this manner the flow of the steam 
and the water of condensation is in the same di- 
rection in the mains, and upon the sudden conden- 
sation of steam, as occurs when turning steam into 
a cold radiator, the water falls down the risers 
against the current of steam, while in the main it 
is forced along in the same direction as the steam. 
If the mains are extensive they may be drained 
at different points. This system is extensively 
used for residences and buildings of only a few 
stories in height, and it has also been used in larger 
installations. In such a plant the risers as well 
as the mains must be cf ample size, and the latter 
must have sufficient pitch and be thoroughly 
drained. 

One-pipe Overhead System. This is the only 
system of single-pipe connection which is exten- 
sively used in high buildings, such as the modern 
office building, and is shown in Fig. 16. In this 
system the steam is conducted through a large 
main supply pipe to the attic of the building, or 
to the ceiling of the top floor, and from this the 
mains extend around the building to supply the 
risers. The risers are connected with the return 
mains in the basement. In this system the flow of 
steam and condensed water is everywhere in the 
same direction except in the connections to the 



36 



STEAM BOILERS 




Fig. 16. 



radiators, and the risers, should be so arranged 
that these connections may be comparatively 



STEAM BOILERS 37 

short. This system has the very decided advan- 
tage over the ordinary one-pipe system that the 
condensed water which falls down the risers from 
the radiators does not, when it reaches the hori- 
zontal pipe at the bottom come into contact with 
the main current of steam, as the horizontal pipe 
is only a drain in which there is practically no 
steam and which is intended solely for the pur- 
pose of draining of the condensed water. 

Two-pipe System. The two-pipe system as il- 
lustrated in Fig. 17 is much the same in all cases, 
but special adaptations of it are sometimes made 
to meet special conditions. There is a two-pipe 
overhead system in which steam mains are in the 
attic as well as in the one-pipe overhead, but there 
a separate set of return risers are provided which 
connect with the return in the basement. This 
system has been very little used. 

The One-pipe Circuit Steam Heating System. 
In this system the steam pipe is run from the 
boiler vertically # to the ceiling of the basement, 
from which point it pitches downward throughout 
its course around the cellar or basement, to a 
point at or near the rear of the boiler, where an 
automatic air vent is placed, and drop made with 
a pipe into the return opening of the boiler. 

The one-pipe circuit system is used in buildings 
which are square or rectangular in shape. 

When the building is of such shape that a one- 
pipe circuit will not do the work to advantage, 



38 



STEAM BOILERS 



that is to say, in long buildings, where the boiler 
is set at or about the middle of the building, it is 
then desirable to run a loop in either direction. 




Fig. 17. 



The Overhead Steam Heating System. In this 
system the feed pipe is carried vertically to the 



STEAM BOILERS 3? 

eeiling of the top floor, or into the attic, and from 
this point branches are carried down to the differ- 
ent radiators. 

This system is used in office buildings., school 
houses, factories, and often in residences, when a 
main can be carried up into an attic. Frequently, 
owing to the absence of a basement under the 
building, it is necessary to use the overhead sys- 
tem to heat the radiators. 

The return pipes should enter the top of the 
flow end of the radiator, and return out of the bot- 
tom of the return end. 

Some radiators on the one^-pipe system may be 
connected as single pipe. Radiators on the over- 
head system may also be connected as on a one- 
pipe circuit system. Where this is done, the con- 
densed water from the radiator returns into the 
drop or feed pipe. 

Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of 
heating surface required to heat a room with steam 
to a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero 
weather with a steam pressure of from 2 to 3 
pounds and ordinary conditions of exposure, the 
following rule is given, which is for direct radia- 
tion, and based upon the glass surfacei, exposed 
wall surface and cubic space: 

1 square foot of radiation to 3 square feet of 
glass, 

1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
wall exposed. 



40 STEAM BOILEES 

1 square foot of radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
space. 

For each degree of temperature above or below 
zero, deduct from or add to- IV^ per cent of the 
radiation given by the above rule. 

Example: Required the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
ing two exposed sides and two windows 2^x6 
feet. 



Answer: 
Glass surface= 30 sq. ft. 
Exposed walls^ 200 " "- 



3=10 sq. ft. 
10=20 " " 



Cubic space=l,000 cu. " -^150= 6.6 " " 
Total direct radiation=36.6 sq. ft. 

Example: Eequired the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for the same room, with one ex- 
posed side and one window 2%x6 feet: 

Answer: 

ft. 



Glass surfaee= 


15 


sq. 


ft.- 


-=- 3= 


5 


sq 


Exposed 


walls— 


100 


a 


a 


^- 10=10 


a 


Cubic 


spaee=l,000 


cu. 


a 


-kL50= 


6.6 


a 



Total direct radiation=21.6 sq. ft. 

When indirect radiation is used, 50 per cent 
should be added to the above figures. 

Reducing Size of Steam Mains. The proper 
reductions in the size of pipe depend on the char- 
acter of the work to which the pipe is put. 

It is customary to reduce the size of mains by 



STEAM BOILERS 



41 



using reducing fittings tapped eccentric, or by 
using a reducing coupling tapped eccentric, the 
idea being to have a continuous fall of pipe with- 
out the formation of traps or obstructions for hold- 
ing water at the points where reductions are made. 
It is customary to reduce the size of pipes for 
risers or radiator connections by using a reducing 
ell on the branch under the floor. 

Eccentric fittings are so tapped as to bring the 
bottoms of the openings of different sizes at the 
same level on the fitting. When these fittings are 
used they allow a continuous fall of pipe without 
forming pockets for holding water at the points 
where reduction in size is made. This is of ma- 
terial benefit to a heating system. 

Steam Mains. The proper size of steam mains 
for one and two-pipe systems are given in the ac- 
companying tables: 



Proper Size of Steam Mains: 

ONE PIPE SYSTEM 


Pipe Size in 
Inches 


2 


2% 


3 Z% 


4 


4K 


5 


6 


Sq. feet of 
Radiation 


200 

to 

350 


350 
to 
500 


500 j 750 
to to 
750 ! 1000 


1000 
- to 
1500 


1500 

to 

1800 


1800 

to 
2200 


2200 

to 
3000 


TWO PIPE SYSTEM 


Pipe Size in 

Inehes 

i 


2 


1% 


3 


s% 


4 


4K 


5 


6 


Sq. feet of 
Radiation 


500 


750 


1000 


1500 


2000 


2500 


3000 


4000 



RADIATION. 

Direct Radiation. This consists of a heating 
surface in the form of a radiator or coil, which is 
placed directly in the room to be heated. 

Indirect Radiation. Eadiators in the room to 
be heated on the first or second floor are located 
in the cellar or basement, usually directly under 
the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the 
floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall 
above the baseboard, a register and connection is 
made between this register and the radiator in 
the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, 
for conveying the heated air into the room. 

The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber 
into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and 
to which the hot air flue to the register is con- 
nected. 

The distance from the top of the radiator to 
the ceiling of the casing should be from 10 to 12 
inches and from the bottom of the radiator to the 
bottom of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- 
mensions of the cold air inlet should be IV2 square 
inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. 
The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for 
each square foot of indirect radiation, which would 
be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 

42 



RADIATION 43 

radiation, 200 square inches of cross sectional area, 
or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the 
warm air register should be 50 per cent larger 
than those of the warm air duct, which allows for 
the contracted area caused by the register face. A 
warm air duct having 200 square inches of cross 
sectional area should have a register approxi- 
mating 300 square inches. 

Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves 
a double purpose, that of Direct Eadiation and 
Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be 
heated under windows, or close to the exposed 
walls. 

The lower front part of the radiator is encased, 
having an opening at the bottom or back of the 
base for the introduction of cold air by means of a 
duct through the outside wall of the building. 

On account of the cooling effect of the outside 
air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- 
creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 
per cent must be added toi make it equivalent to 
direct radiation. 

This system of radiation is seldom used in the 
heating of houses, being more necessary where 
ventilation is required in the heating of public 
buildings and schools. 

Instead of placing all of the radiators at one 
point, it is well to divide it, into two or more radi- 
ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- 
ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 



44 RADIATION 

turning or circulation of the air in the room, it is 
well to divide and place the radiation at the most 
exposed points, in order to better heat the room. 

In small houses a radiator placed in the lower 
hall, if sufficiently large, will heat the hall above, 
but in large buildings, where the hall space is 
large, the upper halls should have radiators placed 
in them. 

A properly installed steam heating plant should 
be noiseless in operation and heat the rooms to 70 
degrees in zero weather. on from 2 to 3 pounds 
steam pressure, and show a circulation of steam 
throughout the system on a pressure of 1 pound, as 
indicated by the steam gauge. 

A noiseless circulation in all radiators on a 
pound of steam or less indicates that the pipe sys- 
tem is of proper size and properly pitched, thereby 
avoiding low places, causing water pockets or 
traps. The proper heating of the rooms in which 
the radiation is placed on from 1 to 3 pounds steam 
pressure indicates that the heating surface or 
radiation is sufficient. 

Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into 
three classes: Direct radiation, Indirect radia- 
tion and Direct-indirect radiation. 

Direct radiation covers all radiators placed 
within a room or building to warm the air, and 
are not connected with a system of ventilation. 

The best place within a room to place a single 
radiator, is where the air is cooled, before or under 



RADIATION 45 

the windows, or on the outside walls. When the 
radiator is of vertical tube, or a short coil, which 
can occupy only the space under one window, and 
when, as often occurs, there are three windows, 
the riser should be so placed as to bring the line 
of radiators in front of, and under the windows 
where they will do the most good. When a small 
extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators 
and place one in front of each of the extreme win- 
dows. 

When the room is large and has many windows, 
the heating surface, when composed of radiators, 
should be divided into as many units as possible. 

Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces 
placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can 
only be used in connection with some system of 
ventilation. 

All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, 
and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. 

Figs. 18, 19 and 20 show two, three and four 
column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 21 a 
two-piece hall or window direct radiator. 

The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in 
wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. The 
former is best when the basement is to be kept 
cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through 
metal cases, otherwise the sheet metal is the best, 
as it will not crack. 

Indirect radiators are usually hung from the 
ceiling in the basement under the rooms they are 



46 



RADIATION 



intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from 
an opening in the outside wall to the stack box. 




Fig. 18. 



This duct must be provided with a damper, and its 
inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall 
with a wire &<if&m of small mesh. 



RADIATION 




Pig. 19. 



§5 



RADIATION 



The box inclosing the radiator shown in Figs, 
22 and 23 is made of wood lined with bright tin 
about half-way down. The sides of the box should 




Fig. 20. 



almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends> 
so that the cold air coming in through the duct 
will surely find its way up between the sections of 
the radiator, and not around the ends of it. 



EADIATION 



49 




Wig. 21. 




Fig, tt. 



50 



EADIATION 







FI*. 23. 



RADIATION 



51 



The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe 
steam system. 

The cold air duct is provided with a slide, so 
that the air may be shut off when it is not wanted, 
or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator 




Pig. 24. 



should be so hung in the box that the space above 
it is about one- third more than the space below; 
this provides for the expansion of the air after it 
has been warmed by contact with the radiator. 

Brackets for supporting the hall or window 
types of direct radiator are shown in Fig. 24. 



52 



RADIATION 



A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated 
in Fig. 25, in which the air is taken from the out- 
side of the room to be heated and passes up be- 
tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the 
front of the radiator being encased. 




Fig. 25. 



EADIATION 



58 





Two Column Radiator for Steam 


or Hot 






Water Heating. 






No. of 

Sec- 
tions. 


Length 

in 
Inches . 


SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 


45 
Inches 
High. 


38 
Inches 
High. 


32 
Inches 
High. 


26 
Inches 
High. 


23 
Inches 
High. 


20 
Inches 
High. 


2 


5 


10 


8 


61 


H 


4% 


4 


3 


7% 


15 


12 


10 


8 


7 


6 


4 


10 


20 


16 


13i 


10| 


9% 


8 


5 


12% 


25 


20 


16| 


m 


11% 


10 


6 


15 


30 


24 


20 


16 


14 


12 


7 


17% 


35 


28 


23J 


18| 


16% 


14 


8 


20 


40 


32 


26f 


211 


18% 


16 


9 


22% 


45 


36 


30 


24 


21 


18 


10 


25 


50 


40 


33i 


26| 


23% 


20 


11 


27% 


55 


44 


36| 


291 


25% 


22 


12 


30 


60 


48 


40 


32 


28 


24 


13 


32% 


65 


52 


43i 


34| 


30% 


26 


14 


35 


70 


56 


46| 


37i 


32% 


28 


15 


37% 


75 


60 


50 


40 


35 


30 


16 


40 


80 


64 


53i 


42| 


37% 


32 


17 


42% 


85 


68 


56| 


45^ 


39% 


34 


18 


45 


90 > 


72 


60 


48 


42 


36 


19 


47% 


95 


76 


63i 


50| 


44% 


38 


20 


50 


100 


80 


66| 


53i 


46% 


40 



54 



RADIATION 



Three-Column Kadiator for Steam or 


Hot 




Water Heating. 




Number of 
Sections. 


Length in 
Inches. 


SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 


39 
Inches 
High. 


33 
Inches. 
High. 


27 
Inches 
High. 


21 
Inches 
High. 


2 


5 


12 


10 1-2 


8 1-2 


6 1-2 


3 


7 1-2 


18 


15 3-4 


12 3-4 


9 3-4 


4 


10 


24 


21 


17 


13 


5 


12 1-2 


30 


26 1-4 


21 1-4 


16 1-4 


6 


15 


36 


31 1-2 


25 1-2 


19 1-2 


7 


17 1-2 


42 


36 3-4 


29 3-8 


22 3-4 


8 


20 


48 


42 


34 


26 


9 


22 1-2 


54 


47 1-4 


38 1-4 


29 1-4 


10 


25 


60 


52 1-2 


42 1-2 


32 1-2 


11 


27 1-2 


66 


57 3-4 


46 3-4 


35 3-4 


12 


30 


72 


63 


51 


39 


13 


32 1-2 


78 


68 1-4 


55 1-4 


42 1-4 


14 


35 


84 


73 1-2 


59 1-2 


45 1-2 


15 


37 1-2 


90 


78 3-4 


63 3-4 


48 3-4 


16 


40 


96 


84 


68 


52 


17 


42 1-2 


102 


89 1-4 


72 1-4 


55 1-4 


18 


45 


108 


94 1-2 


76 1-2 


58 1-2 


19 


47 1-2 


114 


99 3-4 


80 3-4 


613-4 


20 


50 


120 


105 


85 


65 



RADIATION 



55 



Four-Column Radiator for Steam or Hoi 


i 






Water Heating. 






Number 

of 
Sections. 


Length 

in 
Inches. 


square feet of heating surface. 


42 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


38 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


32 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


26 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


20 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


2 


8 1-2 


19 1-3 


16 


13 1-3 


10 2-3 


8 


8 


12 1-2 


29 


24 


20 


16 


12 


4 


16 1-2 


38 2-3 


32 


26 2-3 


21 1-3 


16 


5 


20 3-4 


48 1-3 


40 


33 1-3 


26 2-3 


20 


6 


24 3-4 


58 


48 


40 


32 


24 


7 


28 3-4 


67 3-3 


56 


46 2-3 


37 1-3 


28 


8 


32 3-4 


77 1-3 


64 


53 1-3 


42 2-3 


32 


9 


37 


87 


72 


60 


48 


36 


10 


41 


96 2-3 


80 


66 2-3 


53 1-3 


40 


11 


45 


106 1-3 


88 


73 1-3 


58 2-3 


44 


12 


49 


116 


96 


80 


64 


48 


13 


53 


125 2-3 


104 


86 2-3 


69 1-3 


52 


14 


57 1-2 


135 1-3 


112 


93 1-3 


74 2-3 


56 


15 


61 1-2 


145 


120 


100 


80 


60 


16 


65 1-2 


154 2-3 


128 


106 2-3 


85 1-3 


64 


17 


69 1-2 


164 1-3 


136 


113 1-3 


90 2-3 


68 


18 


73 3-4 


172 


144 


120 


96 


72 


19 


77 3-4 


183 2-3 


152 


126 2-3 


101 1-3 


76 


20 


82 


193 1-3 


160 


133 1-3 


106 2-3 


80 



56 



RADIATION 



Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting 
radiators used in steam heating plants are shown 
in Figs. 26 and 27. 




Fig. 26. 



They should be made in such a manner as to 
allow for expansion and contraction in the branch 




Fig. 27. 



supply to the radiator. This provision is shown 
in the illustrations of radiator connections shown 
in Figs. 26 and 27. 



RADIATION 



57 



When the overhead system is used, the radiators 
may be fed at the top of one end, and the return 
taken out of the bottom of the same or opposite 
end. 

The circulation of water in either case is posi- 
tive. 

All radiator connections should be of sufficient 
area to give the best results. 



Pipe Tap for Radiator Connections 

ONE PIPE SYSTEM 


Square Feet of Radiation 


Size of Pipe Tap in Inches 


20 

25 to 50 
50 to 75 
75 to 100 


1 
2 


TWO PIPE SYSTEM-TWO TAPPINGS 


20 

25 to 50 

50 to 75 
75 to 150 


lxtf 
lXxl 

' l^xlX 



Air Valves. Automatic air valves have almost 
entirely superseded the use of hand operated air 
cocks. They are made with a composition disc, 
which is arranged to close the valve as soon as the 
hot steam comes in contact with it. They are pro- 



58 



RADIATION 



vided with a screw attachment by which the valve 
opening can be adjusted after the valves are in 
place. The only disadvantage of the automatic air 
valve is that when steam is turned on, the entire 
radiator becomes heated. By means of the plain 
air cock the amount of the radiator heated can be 
regulated, especially when connected on a one-pipe 
system. The automatic air valve takes the circu- 
lation in the radiator entirely out of the hands of 
persons who are not acquainted with their prin- 
ciples, and in the case of indirect radiators is an 
absolute necessity. 






Fig. 28 shows three forms of automatic air 
valves, and Figs. 29 and 30 four styles of hand 
operated air cocks. 

Valves. Straightway valves, commonly called 
quick-opening radiator valves, are best adapted 
to this work. Only one valve is used on a hot 
water radiator which is located in the supply pipe, 
as close to the radiator as possible. One valve is 



RADIATION 



59 



Used on a one-pipe steam system, and two on the 
two-pipe system. Valves should be used which 
have removable discs, such as the Jenkins disc 
valve. On one-pipe work the radiator valve should 
be placed on the flow pipe, and on two^pipe work 
on both flow and return pipes. To shut off a steam 
radiator the valve on the return should be closed 




I i 








Fig. 29. 




first, the supply valve last, and in all cases both 
valves should be entirely closed or entirely open. 
To turn on a steam radiator the supply valve 
should be opened first, then the valve on the re- 
turn. The valves should be connected to close 
against the steam pressure, in order that the stuff- 
ing boxes may be packed or repacked while the 



60 



RADIATION 



heating system is in operation. Gate valves should 
be used in the mains and risers for the reason that 
they have a full opening and do not impede the 
circulation. 

Radiator Valves. The most commonly used 
form of radiator valve is the angle valve, with or 
without union connection, and with composition 




Pig. 30. 



disc, wood wheel, rough body and nickel trim-* 
mings, as shown in Figs. 31 and 32. 

Gate valves as shown in Fig. 33 are sometimes 
used when the radiator connections require them, 
especially on a down or overhead system of piping. 

Angle valves with lock and shield as illustrated 
in Fig. 34 are much used in public buildings. 



RADIATION 



61 



Globe valves if used in a steam heating system 
restrict the flow of both steam and condensed 
water. Their use should be avoided if possible. 




Fig. 31. 



Figs. 35 and 36 show vertical cross-section and 
outside views of a globe valve. 

Swing check valves should only be used on the 
main section of a two-pipe system, close to the 
boiler, or when the return is underground, to pre- 



62 



RADIATION 



vent the boiler from being emptied from a leak or 
break in the return pipe. 

An outside view and a vertical cross-section of 
a swing-check valve are shown in Fig. 37. 

Corner radiator valves are generally used when 




Fig. 32. 

the radiator connections are above the floor line. 
Eight and left-hand corner valves are shown in 
Fig. 38. 

A brass plug-cock with square or flat head, as 
shown in Fig. 39, for blowing off the boiler, should 
always be installed either in the return pipe near 



RADIATION 



63 



the boiler or in the boiler itself. It should not be 
directly connected with a pipe to the sewer, the 
and of the pipe should be in plain sight, so that 




Pig. 33. 



any leakage due to not closing the cock properly 
may be noticed. 

Unsteady Water Line in Boiler. This trouble 
often results from grease in the boiler, the grease 
usually being present by reason of its use in the 



64 



RADIATION 



construction of the piping and manufacture of the 
boiler and radiators. The grease rests on the sur- 




Fig. 34. 



face of the water in the boiler, forming a scum, and 
when this occurs, the bubbles of air formed by the 
boiling water cannot reach the surface of the water 



RADIATION 



65 



and burst off into steam. This causes a disturb- 
ance in the boiler, the bubbles seeking for an out- 
let naturally finding it in the connection to the 
water column, or gathering in such force under a 




Pig. 35. 



portion of the scum, that they break together, and 
with such force as to force water into the steam 
main, often causing a vacuum whuch will empty 
the water glass and water column connections en- 
tirely. 



66 



RADIATION 



Blow the boiler off under pressure. This will 
usually remove most of the grease, if the unsteady 
line is due to grease. It may be necessary to repeat 




Fig. 36. 



this operation several times, at intervals of a few 
days, before the boiler is entirely clean. If the 
cause be due to the construction of the boiler, it 
may be necessary to- use an equalizing pipe, that 
is, to make a direct connection from an opening in 



RADIATION 



67 



the top of the boiler to a return opening in the bot- 
tom of the boiler. 

Starting a Steam Heating Plant. After all the 
connections are made, pack the radiator valves and 
attach the air valves. Fill the boiler to the water 
line and start the fire, allowing the entire system 
to fill with steam by opening all the valves. When 
the steam has blown freely out of all air valves, 





1S1 










^V'l-fe"-" ; - : '\w&'"'-- ; 




■* Tsi^H 






Pig. 37. 



close the same, and if they are automatic adjust 
and regulate them, which may* have to be repeated 
a number of times before they are in good working 
order. Carry the pressure of steam high enough 
so that the safety valve will blow off from 5 to 10 
pounds. Inspect every portion of the system care- 
fully, and if any leaks are found note the same and 
when the steam is down make the necessary re- 



68 



RADIATION 



pairs. After the system is found tight, keep the 
boiler under fire several days, and then blow it off 
according to the following directions : 

Close the main steam and return valves, or all 




Fig. 38. 



radiator valves. Make a good fire and get up a 
pressure of at least ten pounds. Open the blow-off 
valve, being careful that just enough fire is car- 
ried to maintain a pressure until the last gallon of 
water is blown out. Allow the fire to go out. Open 



RADIATION 



6& 



the fire and fine doors, and in about half an hour, 
close the blow-off valve, and refill boiler slowly to 
the water line, then open all radiator and main 
valves, and start the fire. 

The boiler should be blown off within a week 
after it is installed and in operation. 





Pig. 39. 



Steam Heating Plant. Figs. 40, 41 and 42 show 
the plans for a three-story and basement apartment 
building equipped with a one-pipe return system. 
The boiler, steam mains, piping to radiators and 
radiators are all plainly shown.. 



70 



RADIATION 




Fig. 40. Basement. 



RADIATION 



1) 




FIK.4L First Story. 



n 



RADIATION 




I— — 




Fig, 42. Second and Third Story. 



RADIATION 



73 



Temperature of Steam at Varying Pressures, 


in Degrees Fahrenheit. 


Gauge Pressure. 


Absolute 
Pressure. 


Temperature in 
Degs. Fahrenheit. 





15 


212 


5 


20 


228 


10 


25 


240 


15 


30 


250 


20 


35 


259 


25 


40 


267 


SO 


45 


274 


85 


50 


281 


40 


55 


287 


45 


60 


292 


50 


65 


298 


55 


70 


302 


60 


75 


307 


65 


80 


312 


70 


85 


316 


75 


90 


320 


80 


95 


324 


85 


100 


327 


90 


105 


331 


95 


110 


334 


100 


115 


338 


110 


125 


344 


120 


135 


350 


130 


145 


S55 


140 


155 


361 


150 


165 


366 



74 RADIATION 

Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
tion, construction and exposure of the building to 
be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 

Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
tion, select a boiler having a rated capacity of 50 
per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 

Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
boiler, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
the size of the mains and the branches. 

From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
number and size of all fittings. 

Allow one air valve for each radiator, and one 
for the end of the steam main. 

The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
plates may be counted from the number and size 
of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
ceilings. 

The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
from the size and number of lineal feet of pipe in 
the mains. 



SPECIFICATION AND CONTRACT FOX A 
STEAM HEATING PLANT. 

We hereby agree to furnish and install in your 

house, street, a Steam Heating 

Plant, under the conditions, and for the price here- 
inafter named, and in accordance with the follow- 
ing specifications: 

Boilers. Furnish and set up in basement one 

No. steam boiler, having a rated capacity of 

square feet, and provide same with a set of 

fire and cleaning tools. 

Foundation. The owner is to provide a suitable 
brick or concrete foundation for the boiler. 

Smoke Pipe. Connect the smoke collar of the 
boiler to the chimney flue by a -inch galvan- 
ized iron smoke pipe, provided with a choke 
damper. 

Chimney. The owner is to provide a chimney 
flue of sufficient size and height to secure a proper 
draught. 

Fittings. The steam main, risers and branches 
to the radiators to be of ample areas and properly 
graded and supported in basement by neat, strong 
hangers, secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to 
be of best grade cast iron, and reducing fittings to 
be used, not bushings. 

75 



76 RADIATION 

P. & C. Plates. Where risers and radiator con- 
nections pass through floors and ceilings, protect 
the openings with neat bronzed or nickel-plated 
floor and ceiling plates. 

Valves. Each radiator is to be furnished with 
a nickel-plated wood-wheel Disc Radiator Valve. 

Air Vents. Each radiator to be provided with 
an automatic air valve. 



HOT WATER HEATING. 

The open tank, and the closed tank or pressure 
systems are in general use. 

The open tank system is preferable to the closed 
tank system, as it may be more easily and safely 
operated. 

In the open tank system a vent pipe is carried 
from the expansion tank through the roof or side 
of the building open to the atmosphere. The 
closed tank system is not vented, and is therefore 
under pressure and requires a safety valve. 

In the closed tank system the water may be 
heated to a temperature above 212 degrees, the 
boiling point of the open tank system. 

A safety valve should be placed on the expansion 
tank, with a pipe running from the open side of the 
valve to a sink or drain, in order that when suffi- 
cient pressure ig raised to operate the valve, any 
overflow of water may be carried off without in- 
jury to the building. 

Ten pounds is the proper pressure at which the 
safety valve should work on the closed tank sys- 
tem. 

The piping for the closed tank or high pressure 
system may be somewhat smaller than for the open 
tank or low pressure system, but the piping should 

' ' 77 • " 



78 HOT WATER HEATING 

be run and the connections taken off in the same 
manner for each system. 

The mains should be pitched 1 inch for each 10 
feet of length. 

The mains in a hot water system should not be 
reduced too rapidly as branches are taken off, as 
the greater amount of friction in the smaller sizes 
of pipe will cause trouble. 

Radiators may be heated by hot water on the 
same level as the boiler, or below it. 

Under these conditions the circulation results 
from the weight of water above the low radiators. 
This depends on the tact that a column of water 
2.32 feet in height will produce about 1 pound of 
pressure. 

This may be done by carrying the flow pipe up 
so as to get a, pressure from the wt//-orht of water 
above, to produce circulation. 

A hot water system should be filled from the 
lowest point if possible, for the reason that the 
water will drive the air out of the system as it 
rises. 

The air vents should all be opened to allow the 
air to escape, being closed as each radiator is com- 
pletely filled with water. 

Round Water Heaters. The heater shown 
in Fig. 43 is entirely of cast iron construc- 
tion, so arranged as to amply provide 
for expansion and contraction. Water heaters, 
whether round or rectangular, are similar in con- 



HOT WATER HEATING 



79 



struction to boilers designed for steam heating 
systems, the only difference in outward appear- 
ance being the absence of a water column, safety 




Fig. 43. 



valve and steam gauge on water heaters. A 
water heater should, however, always be equipped 
with a thermometer and an altitude gauge as illus- 
trated and described later on. 



80 HOT WATER HEATING 

The description and illustration of the internal 
construction of round steam boilers as given on 
pages 14 to 18 will apply to round water heaters 
also. The main points of difference are a larger 
heater surface and the absence of a steam space 
in the water heater as shown in Fig. 44, when 
compared with a steam boiler of similar design 
and capacity, a sectional elevation of which is 
shown in Fig. 3, page 18. 

Eeference to Fig. 2 on page 16 will give the 
reader an idea of the plan usually followed in the 
design and construction of the various sections 
composing the round type of water heater. The 
method of assembling these sections and connec- 
ing them together to form a complete unit is de- 
scribed on page 15. 

The small rings shown in the lower portion of 
Fig. 2 represent cast iron slip nipples having their 
ends ground to a perfect fit with the faces of the 
sections between which they are inserted, thus 
making a steam tight or water tight joint when 
bought together and held in position by the 
threaded nipples referred to on page 15. In the 
more modern type of round boiler or water heater, 
lugs are cast on the outside of the sections 
used in building up the unit, and strong bolts 
passing from the lugs of one section to those 
of the adjacent section serve to still further 
strengthen the construction. When assembling 



HOT WATER HEATING 81 

this latter type, care should be taken not to screw 
down too tightly on the bolts while the sections 
are cold, for the reason that when the heater is 
fired up there will be considerable expansion in 
the sections. The stay bolts should be tightened 
gradually until the heater has reached its highest 
temperature. 

As before stated, hot water heaters differ from 
steam boilers principally in the omission of a 
steam space above the heating surface. The 
steam boiler might be used as a heater for hot 
water, but the large space left for steam would 
necessarily make its operation very unsatisfac- 
tory. The passages designed for circulation in a 
hot water heater need not extend so directly from 
bottom to top as in a steam boiler, since the prob- 
lem of providing for the early liberation of the 
steam bubbles does not have to be considered in 
the case of the water heater. In general, the 
heat from the fire box or furnace should impinge 
against the heating surface in such a manner as 
to increase the natural circulation, and not to 
produce a backward circulation, or a circulation 
in which the water having once been heated by 
passing near the furnace might be caused to again 
flow in that direction. The proper circulation in 
the water heater may be attained by designing 
the heating surface in such a manner that a large 
amount of direct heat will be absorbed by the top 
section referred to in connection with Fig. 2. 



82 HOT WATER HEATING 

This applies to the vertical round heater shown 
in Fig. 44. There is considerable difference of 
opinion among engineers regarding the relative 
merits of vertical and horizontal heating surfaces 
for use in hot water heaters. One phase of the 
question, however, appears to be pretty well set- 
tled; that is, if the surface is very much divided, 
or the circulation of the water from section to 
section is sluggish or hindered in any way while 
at the same time the fire is maintained at a high 
temperature, considerable steam is likely to be 
generated and this always acts in a certain 
measure to increase the circulation in the heating 
pipes and radiators and to still further diminish 
it in the heater, the result being that a disagree- 
able crackling noise or hammering is produced. 
Practically speaking, the boilers designed for 
low pressure steam heating systems and heaters 
designed for hot water heating systems differ from 
each other very little as to the character of th* 
heating surface. 

When designed for steam heating, a steam 
chamber of ample capacity should always be pro- 
vided in the upper portion of the boiler. This 
chamber should contain a few inches of water in 
its lower portion as shown in Fig. 3, and the flat 
area of this water surface should be large enough 
to permit the separation of the steam from the 
boiling water without noise or violent ebulition, 
the steam m the mea&tiaafe aocmmulating in the 



HOT WATER HEATING 



83 



upper portion of the chamber from which it 
passes through the mains and branch pipes to the 
radiators. 
Should the steam chamber not have sufficient 





4$ > w ' 



■ 



Fig. 44. 



volume for the requirements of the system there 
is danger that small quantities of water may be 
projected over into the steam mains by the too 
rapid prass&ge of the dti&m frtfm bfoiter tb pipfes, 



84 



HOT WATER HEATING 



and this would tend to a lowering of the tempera- 
ture throughout the entire system of pipes and 
radiators. 
Rectangular Sectional Heaters. Fig. 45 shows 




FigT. 45. 



a view of the vertical rectangular sectional type 
of water heater, and it will be noted that in ex- 
ternal appearance this heater very much resem- 
bles the rectangular steam boiler shown in Fig. 



HOT WATER HEATING 85 

4, the principal difference being that the heater 
shown in Fig. 45 has neither steam gauge, water 
column nor safety valve. 

As in the case of the round water heaters, the 
description and illustration of the internal con- 
struction of rectangular steam boilers as outlined 
on pages 19 to 22 inclusive will also apply in the 
case of the rectangular sectional type of water 
heaters. This also includes heater capacity as 
calculated on page 21 and 22, except that, instead 
of adding 25 per cent to the total radiation in 
order to ascertain heater capacity, 20 per cent is 
used, as on page 87 where an example is given of 
calculating the total capacity required of a 
heater in the operation of a hot water heating 
system under varying conditions and with dif- 
ferent kinds of equipment, such as direct radia- 
tion, direct-indirect, and indirect radiation. 

Figures 5 and 6 (see pages 20 and 21) show the 
design formerly followed in the construction of 
the different sections used in the makeup of a 
rectangular sectional heater. The rear section, 
shown in Fig. 6, differs from the other sections, 
in that the space between the two legs at the 
bottom is about two-thirds occupied by a cast 
iron water back against which the heat and gases 
from the furnace impinge before passing out 
through the limited space above. Each section is 
hollow throughout, including the vertical columns 
and the horizontal connections between the col- 



86 HOT WATEE HEATING 

umns. This method of construction secures a free 
circulation of water throughout all parts of the 
sections and in those portions which help to make 
up the firepot or furnace, heat is directly imparted 
to the water, thus causing it to move to a higher 
plane while at the same time it is replaced by 
cooler water from the returns. The lower por- 
tions of the sections are connected as shown in 
Fig. 45 to horizontal headers, one on each side, 
into which the return water from the entire heat- 
ing system is conveyed. The tops of the sections 
are also connected to a common header from which 
the main flow pipes distribute the hot water 
throughout the system. These connections are 
made with screw nipples, while the various sec- 
tions composing the boiler are securely held to- 
gether by long bolts extending from front to rear, 
asbestos cement being used between the sections 
to secure air tight and fireproof joints. A series 
of openings in the heating surface above the fire 
allows the passage of the heated gases and smoke 
to the rear of the heater. In the improved mod- 
ern types of sectional boiler the products of com- 
bustion are caused by means of bafflers to pass 
several times across or through the length of the 
boiler before passing into the smoke pipe, thus 
utilizing to as full an extent as possible the heat 
units in the fuel. 

Heater Capacity. This should be 20 percent in 
excess of the total radiation. 



HOT WATER HEATING 87 

Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total 
radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
mains, plus 20 per cent excess heater capacity, 
which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 
required. The same result may be arrived at by 
adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 

When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 
ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and 
when indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cento 



Example : 

Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft 

One direct-indirect radiator—- 60 " 

One indirect radiatoi^=190 " 



700 " 

25 per cent for surface of mains= 112.5 " 
33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 i i 
50 per cent on indirect radiator= 95 " 



927.5 " 
20 per cent excess capacity= 185.5 " 



Heater capacity 1113 " 

Thermometers. A thermometer should be at- 
tached to every water heater as it not only regis- 
ters the temperature of the water but it indicates 
to the attendant the required temperature of the 
water to be maintained for different conditions of 
the weather. It should be located in the top of the 



88 



HOT WATER HEATING 



heater or in the side near the top so that the closed 
brass chamber comes in direct contact with the 




Fig. 46. 



water circulation. Thermometers for use with 
water heaters are shown in Fig. 46. 

Pipe Systems. The quadruple main hot water 
heating system shown in Fig. 47 when properly 



HOT WATER HEATING 89 

installed will give very satisfactory results, and 
on account of the small size of the mains that are 
required it comes well within the range of the tool 
equipment of a heating contractor. 




Fig. 47. 



The double main system, as shown in Fig. 48, 
consists of flow mains starting from points on top 
of the boiler and running horizontally with a pitch 
of 1 inch or more in each 10 feet from the boiler. 



90 HOT WATER HEATING 



Fig. 48. 



This is a system that is very much used and con- 
sidered by many the best practice to follow. 

The single pipe overhead or down-feed system 



HOT WATER HEATING 



91 




Fig. 49. 



92 HOT WATER HEATING 

is much used in large office buildings. As illus- 
trated in Fig. 49 a single feed or supply pipe runs 
from the top of the heater to a point some dis- 
tance above the highest radiator. At this point the 
down-feed pipes branch out to the different sets 
of radiators. The expansion tank is connected to 
the system by a separate pipe at a point near the 
heater as shown. A vent pipe is also placed at the 
top of vertical supply pipe. The expansion tank 
should always be above the highest line of pipe. 

Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of 
heating surface required to heat a room with hot 
water to a temperature of 70 degrees in zero 
weather, with the water at a temperature of 180 
degrees at the heater and under ordinary condi- 
tions of exposure, the following rule is given, 
which is for direct radiation, and based upon the 
glass surface exposed wall surface and cubic space. 

1 square foot of radiation to 1 square foot of 
glass. 

1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
wall exposed. 

1 square foot radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
space. 
For each degree of temperature above or below 
zero, deduct from or add to, IV2 per cent of the 
radiation given by this rule. 

Hot Water Mains. The proper size of mains for 
hot water heating are given in the accompanying 
table: 



HOT WATER HEATING 



93 



Proper Size of Hot Water Mains. 


Size of Main in Inches. 


Sq. ft. Direct Radiation. 


2 


175 
300 


i* 


400 
650 


4 


900 
1200 


5 


1500 
2000 


6 


2700 


7 


4000 


8 


5500 



Radiator Connections. All radiator connections 
should be of sufficient size to give the best results. 



Tapping of Direct Hot Water Radiators. 


40 

40 to 72 

72 to 100 

100 to 150 


1 x 1 

IX x ix 

IX x IX 

2 x 2 


Tapping of Direct Hot Water^ Radiators. 
Two Pipe— Two Tappings. 


20 

20 to 40 
40 to 80 
80 to 120 


X x X 

1 x X 
- IX x 1 
1# xlX 



Example: Required the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
ing two exposed sides and two windows 2^x6 
feet. 



94 HOT WATER HEATING 

Answer: 



- 1-= 30 sq. feet 

- 10= 20 
-150= 6.6 " 



Glass surf ace= 30 sq. ft.- 

Exposed walls= 200 sq. ft.- 

Cubic space=l,000 cu. ft.- 

Total direct radiation=56.6 " 
Example: Required the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for the same room, with one 
exposed side and one window 2 1 />x6 feet. 

Answer: 

Glass surfaces 15 sq. ft.-f- 1= 15 sq. feet 
Exposed walls= 100 sq. ft.^- 10= 10 
Cubic space=l,000 cu. ft.-^-150= 6.6 ' < 
Total direct radiation=31.6 " 

When indirect radiation is used 75 per cenl 
should be added to the above figures. 



RADIATION AND BOILER CAPACITY. 

Considerable space has already been devoted to 
these subjects, especially radiation, but as the 
heating of buildings by steam or hot water has 
within the last twenty-five years developed to a 
degree that requires much sober thought and in- 
telligent judgment on the part of the engineer 
engaged in the work, it is thought best to continue 
the discussion of the above mentioned subjects, 
thus giving the student the benefit of the very 
latest and most modern practice along these lines. 
A very important feature in connection with the 
art of heating and ventilating buildings is the 
diversity of conditions encountered by the en- 
gineer in the installation of heating plants; each 
plant, in fact, being different in some respects 
from the others and requiring the exercise of con- 
siderable ingenuity and good judgment in laying 
out the plans for the piping and in locating the 
radiators in such positions as to get the most effi- 
cient results from the fuel consumed in the boiler 
or heater. When a system of heating a building 
by either steam or hot water has been installed 
and thoroughly tested under the most severe con- 
ditions likely to be encountered, and the test 
proves to be satisfactory in every respect, then 
and not until then, can it be called a successful 

95 



96 HOT WATER HEATING 

installation. Tables are given on pages 53, 54 
and 55, showing the dimensions and square feet of 
heating surface of all the standard types of radi- 
ators and hot water heating. 

The following rules for computing required 
boiler capacities and radiator quantities for steam 
and hot water heating plants have been formulated 
and adopted by the most prominent heating engi- 
neers in the United States, consequently they may 
be considered as standard and strictly up to date 
in every respect. These rules are arranged under 
various schedules (A, B, C, etc.), and it should 
be noted that, although there are several varia- 
tions in certain allowances for radiating quanti- 
ties, the final results when calculated will be 
practically the same for all schedules. 

Schedule "A" is for computing minimum sizes 
of boilers for the average apartment building and 
residence, based on ratings specified in the manu- 
facturer's present catalogue. Standard for com- 
puting boiler sizes and radiation quantities for 
apartment buildings and residences of brick 
construction. 

Note. — Where coils are to be inserted in the 
boiler for heating water for domestic purposes, 
size of the boiler should be increased by figuring 
each gallon of water tank capacity as equivalent 
to two square feet of radiation. For example: a 
160-gallon tank should be figured as equivalent 



HOT WATER HEATING 97 

to 320 square feet of radiation. If this is con- 
nected to an up-draft cast-iron boiler, the in- 
creased size of the boiler would be 320 plus 80 
per cent or 576 feet. If connected to a fire 
box up-draft boiler, the increased size of boiler 
should be 320 plus 35 per cent or 432 feet. 

Cast Iron Up-Draft Boilers. Size of boilers 
should be 80 per cent greater than the actual 
amount of radiation in radiators and coils. See 
Note. 

Cast Iron Down-Draft Boilers. Size of boiler 
should be 60 per cent greater than the actual 
amount of radiation in radiators and coils. 

Cast Iron Up-Draft Boilers. Size of boilers 
should be 60 per cent greater than the actual 
amount of radiation in radiators and coils. See 
Note. 

Steel Firebox, Brick Set, Up-Draft. Size of 
boiler should be 35 per cent greater than the 
actual amount of radiation in radiators and coils. 
See Note. 

Steel Firebox, Brick Set or Portable, Down- 
Draft Boilers. Size of boiler should be 40 per cent 
greater than the actual amount of radiation in 
radiators and coils. See Note. 

Low Pressure Steam Heating Plants. 

Schedule "B M for computing minimum quanti- 
ties of radiation for the average apartment build- 
ing or residence at 70° F. with outside tempera- 
ture at zero. 



98 HOT WATER HEATING 

Note. — To heat to 70° F. with outside tempera- 
ture at 10° below zero, add 15 per cent. 

One square foot of radiation for every 100 cubic 
feet of contents plus. 

One square foot of radiation for every 20 square 
feet of exposed wall surface, plus. 

One square foot of radiation for every three 
square feet of glass surface. 

For all rooms with north and west and north 
and east exposures, add 10 per cent additional 
radiation : 

For top floor add for roof exposure, 10 per 
cent additional radiation. 

For seat radiators, add 20 per cent. 

For indirect radiation, add 60 per cent. 

Schedule "O" for computing minimum quanti- 
ties of radiation for the average apartment build- 
ing or residence at 70° F. with outside tempera- 
ture at zero. 

Note. — To heat to 70° F. with outside tempera- 
ture at 10° below zero, add 15 per cent. 

One square foot of radiation for every 60 cubic 
feet of contents, plus. 

One square foot of radiation for every 10 feet 
of exposed wall surface, plus. 

One square foot for every two square feet of 
glass surface. 

For all rooms with north and west and north 
and east exposures, add 10 per cent additional 
radiation. 



HOT WATER HEATING 99 

For top floor add for roof exposure 10 per cent 
additional radiation. 

For seat radiators, add 20 per cent. 

For indirect radiation, add 100 per cent. 

The above schedules of quantities are commen- 
surate with good heating results for the average 
apartment building or residence of brick construc- 
tion, but are by no means to be construed as guar- 
antees of proper quantities of radiation necessary 
to heat every apartment building or residence, as 
extraordinary conditions will, of course, require 
additional radiation. 

The meaning of the terms "direct radiation," 
" indirect radiation," and "direct-indirect radia- 
tion," as applied to different systems of heating 
by steam or hot water, has been clearly explained 
on pages 42 to 44. 

The rules given under schedules A, B and C, on 
pages 96 to 98, are for computing the minimum 
sizes of boilers and minimum quantities of radia- 
tion for heating buildings. They are based on 
ratings specified in the present catalogue of the 
manufacturers' association and refer more par- 
ticularly to direct radiation. 

In the following pages are given rules and in- 
structions for calculating minimum sizes of vari- 
ous types of heating boilers, including the cast 
iron magazine type, also boilers designed for hot 
blast coils. These schedules cover not only direct 
radiation but include also indirect, and direct- 



100 HOT WATER HEATING 

indirect radiation and are based on ratings as 
specified in the catalogue of the manufacturers' 
issue previous to March, 1916. The vapor system 
of heating is also explained, and many other de- 
tails are given which are not included in schedules 
A, B and C. 

Boiler Sizes for Direct Radiation. 

Schedule "D." For minimum size boilers in 
average buildings based on ratings by manufac- 
turers previous to March, 1916. 

Note. — Where coils are to be inserted in the 
boiler for heating water for domestic purposes, 
size of the boiler should be increased by figuring 
each gallon of water tank capacity as equivalent 
to two square feet of radiation. For example: a 
160-gallon tank should be figured equivalent to 
320 square feet of radiation. If this is connected 
to an up-draft cast iron boiler, the increased size 
of the boiler would be 320 plus 80 per cent, or 576 
feet. If connected to a fire-box up-draft boiler, 
increased size of boiler should be 320 plus 35 per 
cent, or 432 feet. 

Cast Iron Up-Draft Boilers. Size of boiler 
should be 80 per cent greater than the actual 
amount of radiation in radiators and coils when 
temperature of 70° F. is required. See Note. 

Cast Iron Down-Draft Boilers. Size of boiler 
should be 60 per cent greater than the actual 
amount of radiation in radiators and coils when 
temperature of 70° F. is required. See Note. 



HOT WATER HEATING 101 

Steel Firebox, Brick Set, Up-Draft Boilers. 
Size of boiler should be 35 per cent greater than 
the actual amount of radiation in radiators and 
coils when temperature of 70° F. is required. See 
Note. 

Steel Firebox, Brick Set, Up-Draft with Ap- 
proved Furnace. To be figured on same basis as 
steel down-draft of similar number and rating. 

Steel Firebox, Down-Draft ? Brick Set or Port- 
able Boilers. Size of boiler should be 45 per cent 
greater than the actual amount of radiation in 
radiators and coils when temperature of 70° F. 
is required. See Note. 

Cast Iron Magazine Type. Size of boiler should 
be 60 per cent greater than the actual amount of 
radiation in radiators and coih when temperature 
of 70° F. is required. See Note. 

Boiler Sizes for Direct-Indirect and Indirect 
Radiation, For computing boiler size for direct- 
indirect and indirect radiation reduce same to 
basis of direct by adding 50 per cent to indirect 
and 25 per cent to direct-indirect and use factor 
of safety as called for on direct radiation. 
Boiler Sizes for Hot Blast Coils. 

For computing boiler size to be used for Hot 
Blast Coils, use manufacturer's condensation 
charts and figure one-quarter pound of condensa- 
tion per hour as equivalent to one square foot of 
direct radiation and add the following factor of 
safety: 



102 HOT WATER HEATING 

Fire-Box, Up-Draft 10% 

Fire-Box, Down-Draft 15% 

Portable 15% 

Cast-iron Down-Draft 25% 

Magazine 25% 

Cast-iron Up-Draft 40% 

VAPOR SYSTEMS. 

A vapor system is defined as a two-pipe system 
which has the return lines open to atmosphere 
with no valves at the return connections of heat- 
ing units which will close against steam. 

For heating to temperatures other than minus 
10° F. to 70° F., multiply above quantities by the 
following co-efficients: 

10° to 65° 94 

10° to 60° 87 

10° to 55° 81 

10° to 50° 75 

10° to 45° 69 

10° to 40° 62 

Where radiation attached to boiler is designed 
to maintain a temperature lower than 70° F. the 
boiler capacity shall be based on the amount of 
standard column radiation necessary to heat space 
to 70° F. temperature. 

Radiation Quantities for Average Construction. 
Schedule "E. M For computing minimum quan- 
tities of steam radiation at 70° F. with outside 
temperature at minus 10° F. 



HOT WATER HEATING 103 

One square foot of radiation for every 300 cubic 
feet of contents, plus. 

One square foot of radiation for every 15 square 
feet net exposed wall surface, plus. 

One square foot of radiation for every two 
square feet of glass surface. 

For all rooms with plastered ceiling and un- 
heated air space between ceiling and the roof, add 
one square foot of radiation for every 30 square 
feet of ceiling area. 

For all rooms with ceiling plastered on roof 
joists, add one square foot of radiation for every 
20 square feet of ceiling area. 

For all rooms with ceiling of open joist or con- 
crete roof constructions, add one square foot of 
radiation for every 10 square feet of roof. 

For all rooms with northeast or northwest ex- 
posure, add 10 per cent additional radiation. 

Where radiators are placed under seats or be- 
hind grills, add 20 per cent additional radiation. 

Where radiators are placed in open recesses, 
add 10 per cent additional radiation. 

For indirect radiation without fan system, add 
50 per cent additional radiation. 

For direct-indirect without fan system, add 25 
per cent additional radiation. 

Where pipe coils or cast iron wall radiation 
are placed on side of walls 80 per cent of the re- 
quired amount of standard column radiation may 
be installed. Size of boiler and piping, however, 



104 HOT WATER HEATING 

shall be based on standard column radiation re- 
quirements. Ceiling coils to be considered as 
standard column radiation. 

In measuring glass surface, the full opening in 
wall shall be figured. Outside door openings shall 
be taken as glass. 

For computing minimum quantities of hot water 
radiation at 70° F. with outside temperature at 
minus 10° F., add 60 per cent to amount necessary 
for steam. 

For computing minimum quantities for vapor 
systems at 70° F. with outside temperature at 
minus 10° F., add 20 per cent to amount necessary 
for steam. 

The above schedules of quantities are commen- 
surate with good heating results for the average 
building of average construction, but are by no 
means to be construed as guarantees of the proper 
quantities, as extraordinary conditions will, of 
course, require additional radiation or boiler 
capacity. 

MODERN BOILERS AND WATER HEATERS. 

Many important improvements in the design 
and construction of heating boilers and equipment 
have been wrought within recent years, and it is 
fitting that space be here devoted to a description 
and explanation of the principles involved in some 
of the more prominent types. Before proceeding 
farther, the author desires to acknowledge his in- 



HOT WATEK HEATING 



105 



debtedness to the American Radiator Company 
for courtesies received in the way of illustrative 
and descriptive matter pertaining to the subject. 
Square Sectional Boilers. Probably no type of 
boiler is better adapted for general heating service 




Fig. 50. 



than is the square or rectangular sectional boiler. 
Made of cast iron, the sections can be assembled 
so as to form a complete boiler of any size and 
capacity as conditions may require. Another ad- 
vantage to be noted in favor of this type of boiler 
is adaptability for practically all kinds of fuel. 



106 



HOT WATER HEATING 



Fig. 50 shows a view of the Ideal steam boiler, of 
which there are many styles. Figures 51 and 52 
will give the reader a good idea of the interior con- 
struction of this type of heating boiler, the arrows 
in Fig. 51 indicating the course of the flame and 
heated gases in their passage from the firepot to 




Fig. 51. 



the smoke pipe. Fig. 52 shows the extent of the 
grate surface. Water heaters of the Ideal type 
are of practically the same design as the steam 
boilers. Fig. 53 shows an interior view of the 
Ideal down-draft sectional boiler by the use of 
which economy in fuel and the prevention of 



HOT WATER HEATING 107 

smoke is effected. Another view of this style of 
boiler is given in Fig. 54 showing the so-called 
water grate immediately above the main grate. 

Ideal Type "0" Sectional Boiler. This boiler, 
a view of which is shown in Fig. 55, represents a 
radical departure from the ordinary design of sec- 




Fig. 52. 

tional boiler, in that it is grateless and that its 
fuel, which is soft coal, is fed downward from a 
magazine while the air necessary for combustion 
is passed to the sides of the fire through an auto- 
matically controlled air duct leading from the 
front draft damper in the top of the outer door 
frame as shown in Fig. 56, which is a side sec- 



107a 



HOT WATER HEATING 



tional view showing the fuel in the magazine, the 
fire underneath, and the direction taken by the 
products of combustion which at first rise and are 
then compelled by means of a revertible flue to 
flow downward, making their final escape through 
the smoke flue at the lower left corner of the 




Fig. 53. 



boiler as shown in Fig. 55. As will be seen from 
Fig. 56, a secondary air supply also leads from 
the draft damper through channels between fins 
on the section, thence over the top of the coal in 
magazine, and into an auxiliary air tube as indi- 
cated by the arrows. This secondary air tube, it 
will be noted, terminates in a large slotted pipe 



HOT WATER HEATING 107b 




Fig. 54. 




Fig. 55. 



107c 



HOT WATER HEATING 



running horizontally through the boiler and from 
this slotted pipe the secondary air, already pre- 
heated, issues into the combustion zone at its point 
of highest temperature, thus insuring a combus- 
tion that is practically complete. This auxiliary 
air supply can be increased in volume if desired 




Figr. 56. 



by means of a circular slide damper at either side 
of the boiler, those dampers being attached to the 
ends of the horizontal slotted air pipe (see Fig. 
55). The builders of this boiler, The American 
Eadiator Co., claim that it is smokeless, and that 
it win r^idily burn thfc tower graSfes of free-burn- 



HOT WATER HEATING 107d 

ing bituminous coal. In operation, no air is ad- 
mitted from beneath the boiler, the large front 
door shown in Fig. 55 being for the removal of 
ashes only. 

Automatic Damper Control. In order to get 
the best results from the fuel consumed in a heat- 
ing boiler it is necessary that some means be pro- 
vided for automatic regulation of the draft. A 
very efficient and reliable device for this purpose 





Fig. 57. Fig. 58. 

is the Sylphon regulator which can be attached 
to either a steam boiler or a water heater. Fig. 
57 shows the Sylphon regulator as designed for 
use on a steam boiler. It is constructed entirely 
of metal, having no rubber diaphragms, packing, 
nor piston ; motion being imparted to the weighted 
lever by the expansion and contraction of a sensi- 
tive bellows of cylindrical form with two brass 
disks and accordion sides made of the best flexible 
steam brass. The method of attaching it to the 
damper of a steam boiler is shown in Fig* 50* It 



107e 



HOT WATER HEATING 



can be adjusted to maintain any pressure desired. 
The Sylphon regulator for a water heater operates 
on the same principle as the steam regulator, ex- 
cept that its action depends upon the temperature 
of the water. As shown in Fig. 58 there are two 
weights on the regulator lever, and adjustment 




Fi & . 59. 



for any desired temperature is accomplished by 
placing the balance weight at that point on the 
lever which will give the desired result. 

The Sylphon regulator is usually connected to 
the highest portion of the boiler or it may be con- 
nected by means of a "Y" or "T" fitting to one 
of the flow pipes as near the boiler as possible. 



HOT WATER HEATING 107f 

Arco Temperature Regulator. This device has 
two parts, the thermostat and the motor. The 
thermostat is placed on an inside wall at some 
central location in the building and controls the 
operation of the motor which is located in the 
basement and operates the dampers on the heater. 
Fig. 59 shows the thermostat which is equipped 
with an eight-day clock that can be set to lower 




Fig. 60. 

the temperature at night at any time desired, and 
automatically raises it to 70° at any hour desired 
in the morning. The power to operate the 
dampers on the heater is supplied by an Arco 
motor which has ample power to lift the heaviest 
dampers, or to operate steam or gas valves, and 
the operation of this motor is controlled by the 
clock thermostat 



107g HOT WATER HEATING 

Any one of three different types of motor may 
be used, depending upon conditions. Where alter- 
nating electric current is available, a small induc- 
tion motor can be used. The spring motor shown 
in Fig. 60 is actuated by a spring and will give 
sixty to seventy-five operations on one winding. 
The indicator on the front shows at a glance when 
winding is necessary. The Arco gravity motor is 
similar to the spring motor except that power is 
supplied by a ten-pound weight. This motor re- 
quires winding more often than the spring motor. 



HOT WATER HEATING 107h 

BOILER RATINGS. 

The ratings of heating boilers are based on the 
following conditions: 

Steam Boilers. Assuming that a gauge pressure 
of two pounds is maintained in the boiler, and that 
the radiation is standing in quiet air at a tempera- 
ture of 70 degrees Fahr. Under such conditions, 
one square foot of heat-radiating surface will con- 
dense not more than 0.25 (%) pound of steam per 
hour. If the load attached to the boiler has 
a condensing power exceeding 0.25, such as occurs 
in factories, green-houses, etc., the factor repre- 
senting the increased condensation should be used 
instead of the house heating factor of 0.25. 

Water Boilers. Assuming that the temperature 
of the water is maintained at 180 degrees Fahr. 
at the outlet of the boiler, and that the heat radia- 
tion is standing in quiet air at 70 degrees Fahr. 
Under such conditions one square foot of heat 
radiating surface will lose 150 B.T.U.'s (heat 
units) per hour. (For a definition of the term 
"heat units" see page 192). In green-houses, 
factories, etc., the cooling power will exceed that 
given above, and the factor representing the in- 
creased cooling effect should be used instead of 
the house heating factor of 150 heat units per 
hour. 



108 



RADIATION 



Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting 
radiators used in water heating plants are shown 
in Fig. 61. 



*intfW}Mi^ 





yjuUuUi 




Radiator Valves. For use with hot water heat- 
ing systems, angle radiator valves that have a full 
opening for a half turn of the wheel are usually 
employed. They have wood wheel, union connec- 
tion and nickel-plated trimmings. This style of 
valve is illustrated in Figs. 62 and 63. 

Angle valves with or without union connection, 
with wood wheel and nickel-plated trimmings, of 
the disk seat type are also used. They are shown 
in Figs. 64 and 65. 

Gate valves as shown in Figs. 66 and 67 are used 
with down feed or overhead systems or when the 
radiator connections are made above tike floor. 



RADIATION 



109 



J 



Globe valves as shown in Fig. 68 should not, if 
possible, to do without, be used in hot water heat- 
ing systems, as their use interferes with the free 
circulation of the water. 




Fig. 62. 



A corner valve for use when the radiator con- 
nections are above the floor is shown in Fig. 69; 
they are made both right and left-hand and with 
union connection. 



110 



KADIATION 



A square or flat plug-cock should be always 
placed in the return pipe close to the boiler or in 
the boiler itself, a,s close to the bottom as possible. 




Fig. 63. 



It should not have any direct connection to the 
sewer, but the discharge end of the pipe should be 
in plain sight so that any leakage due to negli- 



RADIATION 



111 



gence in closing the cock may be quickly seen. 
Fig. 70 shows both square and flat-head plug- 
cocks. 
The union-elbow shown in Fig. 71 is used to 




Fig. 64. 



make the return connection from the radiation to 
the main. Check valves such as shown in Fig. 72 
are sometimes used in the return main of a hot 
water heating system. 



112 



RADIATION 



Check Valve. It is well understood that the 
common check valve is a very poor article when it 
is put to constant work, as it soon becomes pound- 




Fig. 65. 



ed out of the seat, thereby leaking. It also wears 
oblong in consequence of the back pressure com- 
ing against the side of the feather, which back 
pressure prevents the valve from closing promptly, 



RADIATION 



113 



thereby permitting considerable water to return 
to the pump. 
The common valves are very much choked by 




Fig. 66. 



the guides, so that not more than two-thirds of 
their area is serviceable. 

The cup pattern valve shown in Fig. 72 has a 



114 



EADIATION 



much larger seat, a larger area, and is so con- 
structed tliat the back pressure conies on the top 
of valve, thus preventing the side wear of the seat, 
and insuring prompt closing. 



/a 











Fig. 67. 



Expansion Tank. The purpose of an expansion 
tank is to provide for the increased bulk of the 
water in a hot water heating system, as water ex- 



RADIATION 



115 



pands about one-twentieth of its bulk from 40 to 
212 degrees Fahrenheit or to the boiling point of 
water. The expansion tank should always be 




Fig, 68. 



placed at the highest point of the system and near 
the ceiling at least 3 or 4 feet above the highest 
radiator or even higher if possible. 



116 



KADIATION 



The expansion tank should not require more 
than one or two gallons per month to replenish 
the loss by evaporation. The overflow or vapor 







Fig. 69. 

pipe should be carried to the nearest drain. The 
expansion tank should never be placed in an ex- 
tremely cold place or an unheated room if possible 1 . 
A stop-cock or globe-valve should never be placed 
in the pipe leading to the expansion tank. 



RADIATION 



117 



The expansion tank should be located in a warm 
room, to prevent freezing. 





Fig. 70. 



The overflow from the expansion tank should 
be carried through the roof, and on the end of the 




Fig. 71. 



pipe a return bend should be placed, in order that 

the water may not run down the side of the pipe. 

The expansion tank should hold from 1-20 to 



118 



RADIATION 



1-30 of the amount of water contained in the entire 
system, 

For the reason that when at the boiling point, 
the water in the system will occupy a considerably 
larger space than when cold. 

At its boiling point, water fills a space about 5 




Fig. 72. 

per cent, greater in volume than at its densest 
point, when cold. When cold, the water must fill 
the entire system. Therefore provision must be 
made to take care of this extra volume when the 
water is at the boiling point. 

The expansion tank is provided for this purpose 
on all hot water heating systems. 



RADIATION 



11* 



When a wooden lead-lined tank is used and thft 
water supply can be obtained from the city water 
main, a float device replenishes' the water automa- 
tically. 




Fig. 73. 



If there be no water pressure available the tank 
must be filled by hand through a funnel. 

A galvanized steel expansion tank is shown in 
Fig. 73. The overflow pipe, vent and water sup- 
ply openings are all clearly shown. 



120 



RADIATION 




Fig. 74. 



A water gauge for use on an expansion tank is 
illustrated in Fig. 74. 



HOT WATER HEATING 



121 



Capacity of Expansion Tanks. 


No. 


Diam. in 


Capacity 


Sq. Ft. of 


No. 


Dinm. in 


Capacity 


Sq. Ft. of 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


Radiation. 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


Radiation. 





16 


8 


250 


5 


31 


32 


1,300 


1 


m 


10 


300 


6 


32 


42 


2,000 


2 


20 


15 


500 


7 


37 


66 


3,000 


3 


23 


20 


700 


8 


39 


82 


5,000 


4 


25 


26 


950 


9 


40 


100 


6,000 



Altitude Gauge. The gauge shown in Fig. 75 
denotes the height of a column of water in a reser- 




Fig. 75. 



voir or tank used in connection with heating or 
wherever it is desired. 

The adjustable hand indicates the number of 



122 HOT WATER HEATING 

feet in height at which the water should be con- 
stant in the reservoir, and is so set by the user 
when the gage is put up. 

The hand operated by the gauge tube spring, 
which the pressure of the column of water actu- 
ates, shows in graduations on the dial marked in 
feet the actual height of water in the tank or re- 
servior and consequently the fluctuations in the 
height of water due to its use, and thus enables 
the user instantly to know whether the water 
column is of the required and proper height to 
be maintained. It is of great service and useful- 
ness in this respect. 

The gauge has two dials*, the red one being 
moveable only by hand, the black one being con- 
nected with the mechanism of the gauge. When 
the system is first filled to the required height, the 
spring dial of the gauge shows the height in feet 
of the water in the system. The face of the gauge 
is then taken off, and the red dial moved to a point 
directly under the^spring dial, and pointing to the 
same number on the gauge. As the water in the 
system evaporates by use, the spring dial drops 
away from the red dial, indicating less water in 
the system. 

By the use of an altitude gauge at the boiler, the 
necessity of watching the expansion tank to know 
the amount of water in it, is avoided, as the gauge 
at the boiler registers the height of water in feet 
in the system. 



HOT WATER HEATING 



123 



Approximate Radiating Surface To Cubic 
Capacities of Space to be Heated. 


One Square Foot 

of Radiating 
Surface will Heat. 


CUBIC FEET OF AIR. 


In Dwellings, 

School-Rooms 

and Offices. 


In Halls, Lofts, 
Stores and 
Factories. 


In Churches and 
Large Audi- 
toriums. 


With direct 
hot-water radi- 
ating surface. 

With indirect 
hot-water radi- 
ation. 

With direct 
hot-water radi- 
ating surface. 

With indirect 
hot-water radi- 
ation. 


30 to 50 
15 to 35 
50 to 80 
40 to 50 


60 to 80 
20 to 45 
70 to 100 
55 to 75 


90 to 150 
60 to 100 
160 to 250 
100 to 150 



Starting a hot water heating plant. The expan- 
sion tank should always be placed in position at 
the same time as the radiators. 

After the system is erected and all connections 
made, each radiator valve should be packed. The 
air valves should be attached to the radiators, and 
should be shut off, preparatory to filling the sys- 
tem with water. 

When either or both a hot-water thermometer 
or altitude gauge are to be used they should be at- 
tached at this time, provision being made for con- 
necting them when erecting the mains. 



V21 HOT WATER HEATING 

Fill the system with water slowly until the 
heater and mains are full. If any leaks are discov- 




Fig. 76.— Basement. 



ered, but not serious, continue to fill the system 
with water until the water can be drawn freely 
from the air valves on the first floor radiators. 



HOT WATER HEATING 125 

Open all the radiator valves and start a slow 
fire, and when the system is tight, raise the tern- 




Fig. 77.— First Floor. 

perature of the water to the boiling point, or 212 
degrees Fahrenheit which should be easily done if 
all conditions are right. 



126 



HOT WATER HEATING 



After a day's test the fire should be let out, and 
the entire system drained, and all leaks that have 



•□• 




Fig. 78 —Second Floor. 



been discovered repaired, when the system should 
be refilled with fresh water. 
Hot water heating plant. The preceding ilhis- 



HOT WATER HEATING 127 

trations shown in Figs. 76, 77 and 78 are the plans 
for a nine room house, heated by a, double-main 
hot water system. The boiler, water, mains, pip- 
ing to radiators, and the radiators are all plainly 
shown. 



SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACT FOR A 
HOT WATER HEATING PLANT. 

We hereby agree to furnish and install in your 
residence, Street, a Eot Water Heat- 
ing Plant under the conditions, and for the price 
hereinafter named, and in accordance with the 
following specifications: 

Boiler— To provide and set up in basement one 
No Hot Water Boiler, having a rated capa- 
city of square feet, and furnished with a 

set of fire and cleaning tools. 

Foundation— The owner is to provide a suitable 
foundation for the boiler of brick or concrete. 

Smoke Pipe— The smoke collar of the boiler to 
be connected to the chimney flue by a . . inch gal- 
vanized iron smoke pipe, closely fitted and provid- 
ed with a choke damper. 

Chimney— The owner shall provide a chimney 
flue of proper size and height to secure sufficient 
draft. 

Fittings— The mains, risers and branches to be 
of ample area, properly graded. The mains to be 



128 HOT WATER HEATING 

supported in the basement by neat, strong bangers, 
secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to be of best 
grade cast iron to be used. 

Floor and Ceiling Plates— Where risers and 
radiator connections pass through floors and ceil- 
ings, place bronzed or nickel-plated floor and ceil- 
ing plates. 

Valves— Each radiator to be furnished with a 
nickel-plated wood-wheel, quick opening radiator 
valve. 

Union Ells— The return end of each radiator to 
be provided with a nickel-plated elbow, with union 
coupling. 

Air Vents— Each radiator to be furnished with 
a nickel-plated air valve, with key or wood-wheel. 

Water Supply— The owner is to provide a con- 
nection in the water service pipe, near the boiler, 
for the water supply. 

Expansion Tank— Provide and place in proper 
position a heavy galvanized iron expansion tank, 
complete with water gauge. 

Altitude Gauge— Furnish and attach in proper 
position on boiler one 5-inch Altitude Gauge with 
stop cock. 



Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
tion, construction and exposure of the building to 
be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 

Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
tion, select a heater having a rated capacity of 50 
per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 

Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
heater, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
the size of the mains and the branches. 

From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
number and size of all fittings. 

Allow one air valve for each radiator. 

The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
plates may be counted from the number and size 
of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
ceilings. 

The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
from the size and number of lineal feet of pipe in 
the mains. 

The best method of running pipe around a tim- 
ber is by the use of the offset fittings, as they 
represent the least resistance to circulation. 

129 



130 HOT WATER HEATING 

Equalizing Pipe. The function of an equalizing 
pipe is to steady the water line of the boiler, which 
may fluctuate up and down in the water glass, and 
thus fail to give a reliable indication of the true 
water level. This trouble may also be due to the 
peculiar construction of the boiler, or to the fact 
that a proper height cannot be reached by the 
main above the boiler, or to a low ceiling or to 
some other cause. The equalizing pipe may be 
connected from the steam dome or top of the boiler 
to one of the return openings below the water-line 
of the boiler, or it may be connected to the main 
near the point where the main is taken from the 
boiler, and connected into the return pipe at a 
point near the entrance of the return into the 
boiler. 

PLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 

The quantity of water which flows through a 
pipe is measured by the product of the area of its 
cross-section and the velocity of its flow. The 
velocity is not uniform over the entire cross-sec- 
tion, but a mean or average velocity may be com- 
puted which will serve for purposes of calcula- 
tion. 

In order to calculate the velocity, two elements 
must be considered, viz., the slope and the hydrau- 
lic radius. The slope is the sine of the angle of 
inclination of the pipe, or in other words, the head 
divided by the length of pipe. The hydraulic 
radius is the area divided by the wetted perimeter. 



HOT WATER HEATING 131 

For purposes of computation, the slope is called 
S, and the hydraulic radius R. For pipes of 
circular cross-section running full ft=diameter 
divided by 4, the same being true when half full. 

The head of water is the vertical distance to 
which it is pumped above the level of supply. 
The pressure of one foot-head of water, taking 
the density at the average temperature of 62 de- 
grees Fahr. is 0.433 pound per square inch. The 
head corresponding to one pound pressure per 
square inch is 2.3095 feet. The pressure within a 
vessel is the same upon every square inch of its 
surface regardless of its shape and size and is 
due to the head of water upon it. 

The theoretical velocity of water issuing from 
an orifice is the same as that which would be ac- 
quired by a body falling from the height of the 
head of the wate r ab ove the orifice. This is ex- 
pressed by V=V2gh, 

Where V=velocity in feet per second 
h=the head of the water 
g=the acceleration of gravity=32.2 

In practice, this theoretical velocity is not at- 
tained. If the water is under pressure other than 
that due to its own weight, the head corresponding 
to that pressure may be found allowing 2.3095 
feet to the pound pressure. 



132 HOT WATER HEATING 

The co-efficient of discharge of a jet of water is 
the proportion of the full theoretical discharge 
which is realized in practice. As a result of many 
experiments, this co-efficient may be given a mean 
value of 0.61. Therefore, to find the actual dis- 
charge of water from an orifice in the compara- 
tively thin wall, or bottom of a vessel or tank con- 
taining water; multiply the area of the opening 
by the theoretical velocity (V=V2gh) ; then 61 
per cent of this product will be the discharge. 

If, instead of a mere orifice, a short tube hav- 
ing a length of about three times its diameter is 
used, the co-efficient of discharge is 80 per cent of 
the theoretical amount. In computing the flow of 
water through long pipes, the principal velocity 
loss is due to friction between water and pipe. 

Flow of Steam Through Pipes. The flow of 
steam in pipes presents some problems that are 
slightly different from those given on pages 148 
and 149, relative to the flow of air, although in 
many respects the two cases are similar. There 
is a tendency for the steam to condense, which 
changes the flow and greatly affects the results. 

In estimating the size of steam mains for power 
purposes, it is customary to allow an area of cross- 
section such as will give velocity of flow not to 
exceed 100 feet per second. For steam heating 
purposes, the rule is to use a much larger pipe and 
lower velocity, so that the total reduction on the 
entire system is much less. 



FURNACE HEATING. 

Furnace Heating. Since 1 square foot of glass 
will transmit about 85 heat units per hour when 
the difference between the inside and outside tem- 
perature is 70 degrees, to ascertain the total loss of 
heat by transmission multiply the exposed glass 
surface by 85. 

If the air enters through the register at 140 de- 
grees, under zero conditions, it is plain that one- 
half the heat supplied is carried away by the air 
escaping at 70 degrees the other half being lost 
through the walls and windows. Therefore, twice 
ihe amount of heat lost by transmission must be 
supplied by the furnace. 

As 8000 heat units are utilized per pound of 
roal burned in a well proportioned house heating 
furnace, with a maximum coal consumption of 5 
] >ounds per square foot of grate surface per hour 
there are consequently 8000x5=40,000 heat units 
\)er hour per square foot of grate surface trans- 
) tiitted to the air passing through the furnace. Di- 
viding the total loss of heat per hour (that is the 
total exposure in terms of the exposed glass sur- 
iace) by 40,000 will give the required grate surface 
i a square feet, from which the diameter of the fire 
\iot in inches may be readily determined. 

133 



134 FURNACE HEATING 

Tbat is: Total Exposure X 170 

40,000 

Total Exposure . _ 

*= * ^rz = required grate surface. 

Furnaces. In the furnace shown in the illustra- 
tion at Fig. 79 the combustion drum from top to 
bottom consists of one sheet of steel, its seams be- 
ing riveted until gas-tight so that where the sheet 
is lapped it is practically welded. The same gas- 
tight workmanship is maintained in the extra rad- 
iating drum and in the furnace throughout. Gas 
cannot get through the heating surface at any 
point. The material used is of the best quality low- 
carbon, steel plate, a metal that is uniform in tex- 
ture and composition, and anti-corrosive, ductile, 
and possessed of a tensile strength of 60,000 
pounds to the square inch. In a cold state it may 
be worked almost as copper plate may be, it may 
be flanged, double-seamed, twisted, drawn out, 
doubled up, and welded and the process may be 
continually repeated. A piece one-fourth of an 
inch thick may be drawn as thin as a piece of writ- 
ing paper without cracking or checking. Con- 
taining less than one-fourth of one per cent, of 
carbon, mild in quality and homogenous in struc- 
ture, it is absolutely impermeable to gases, and 
having a uniform expansive quality throughout 
its entire mass, it has neither fibre to tear nor sand 
to drop, as is the case in cast metals. 

It may be said of the ordinary furnace that fuel 



FUKNACE HEATING 



135 



is put in at the door and heat let out at the smoke 
hole— let out either as soot and gases that have not 




Fig. 79. 



been ignited, or as heat that must be wasted 
through the flue, because efforts to retain it wouifl 



136 FURNACE HEATING 

cause a choking of the smoke-passage. In other 
words, it has a practically direct draft because of 
its imperfect system of fuel combustion. 

This is really a double furnace. Combustion 
takes place in the first, or fire drum, which in it- 
self possesses a very great radiating surface. 
From this, before reaching the smoke outlet, the 
products of combustion have to enter and travel a 
long distance through the second drum. This 
drum, by actual measurement, contains more heat- 
ing surface than some of the heaters upon the mar- 
ket contain altogether. This supplementary drum 
is made in two forms — crescent shape and round, 
the latter with an open center. The course of the 
products of combustion being such that heat is 
brought directly against every part of the inside 
of the surface, while the air passes against every 
part of the outside, so that there is not only long 
retention of the heat inside, but an effective use 
of it by contact with the air from the outside. A 
question always arising in the mind that whether 
or not, with such a long and indirect passage way, 
there will not be choking or clogging. There will 
not be. Herein is where the effective combustion 
is demonstrated. With a good smoke flue and with 
ordinary good care, this drum will not require 
cleaning of tener than once a year. More than this, 
the heating surface will remain practically free 
from soot-coating, so that it is always effective for 
Service, ^ 



FUKNACE HEATING 



137 



Fig. 80 is a partial sectional elevation of the fur- 
nace previously described, while Fig 81 shows 




Fig. SO. 



the same furnace with a water heating device 
which forms a portion of the fire pot as shown. 



138 



FURNACE HEATING 



The water-back itself is shown in Fig. 82. An en- 
cased type of furnace with additional drum also 




Fig. 81. 



-. -■.."' 



built in with the furnace proper is shown in Fig. 
83. A water tank for furnishing hot water is ateo 



FURNACE HEATING 139 

provided as shown in the illustration. Check 
draft dampers for controlling the temperature of 
the furnace are shown in Fig. 84. 

General instructions. To obtain proper results 
and to convey all the warm air that a furnace may 
produce, to the rooms to be heated, the following 
rules should be observed: 





Fig. 82. 

Put in a furnace of sufficient capacity. 

See that the chimney is of proper size and has 
good draught. 

If possible set the furnace under the center of 
the house, so as to equalize the length of the hot 
air pipes. 



140 



FURNACE HEATING 



Hot air pipes should be of the proper size, with 
a good elevation from the furnace to the register, 
avoiding long runs and abrupt turns. 




Fig. 83, 



The cold air pipe, if taken from the living room, 
should be at least 85 per cent of the combined 
area of all the hot air pipes. 

AH holes or openings in the foundation must be 
closed to prevent the hot air from being chilled. 






FURNACE HEATING 



141 



Good workmanship and practical application of 
the same always insures good results. 
Proper Size of the Furnace. Some furnaces are 





Fig. 84. 



rated far above the amount of their actual heating 
capacities. Combining this with the fact that some 
dealers expect to sell a consumer only one furnace, 



142 FURNACE HEATING 

and therefore consider only the first profit and pay 
little attention to results, has led to the general de- 
mand of the prospective buyer to ask for a fur- 
nace of one or two sizes larger than the one figured 
on. 

The tables of capacities of furnaces are based on 
scientific figures and years of actual test and ex- 
perience. Under reasonable conditions a furnace 
selected according to this rating will heat the 
building to the proper temperature. 

Proper Size of the Chimney. The chimney 
should start from the floor of the cellar so as to 
allow for a clean out underneath the smoke pipe. 
It should continue in a straight line to at least 2 
feet above the highest point of the roof, if neces- 
sary to offset, care should be taken not to contract 
the size, a 10 inch round or an 8 by 12 inch square 
is a good flue for almost any size of furnace. For 
a small furnace a straight chimney, with an 8 by 
8 inch flue will answer the purpose. 

A chimney 4 inches wide will seldom give sat- 
isfaction. As a great deal depends on a good chim- 
ney, this very important feature should never be 
overlooked. 

Location of the Furnace. There may be condi- 
tions that make it impractical to set the furnace 
under the center of the house, but the best results 
are always obtained when it is possible to do so. 
If it be necessary to set the furnace toward one 
end of building, it is best to favor the north 



FURNACE HEATING 143 

and west. Drainage conditions often govern the 
depth of cellar. If possible it should be at least 7 
feet under the joists. 

Hot Air Pipes. There is no rule that would ap- 
ply to the size of the pipe for certain rooms. The 
location of the furnace, the length of the pipes and 
the exposure of the rooms, also their use must be 
taken into consideration. Ordinarily 8 and 9 inch 
pipes are large enough for all second and third 
floor rooms. For first floor rooms, a reception hall 
with open stairway to second floor, a 12 inch pipe 
is the best adapted, but 10 inch may answer the 
purpose in most cases. For parlor, dining and sit- 
ting rooms of about 12 by 16 feet or 14 by 15 feet 
a 10 inch pipe will give good results, 8 and 9 inch 
should be used for bed rooms. If possible, avoid 
any bends or turns except an elbow at the furnace 
and another where it enters the register box or 
boot. A damper should be put in every hot air 
pipe close to surface. 

All hot air pipes in the cellar should be covered 
with asbestos. This insures better heating, pre- 
serves the pipes and makes them absolutely safe. 

Partition Pipes. Use of double pipes is advo- 
cated as the flow of air through them is better 
than if single pipes are used. The reason for this 
is that with the patented double pipes, the inside 
pipe has a straight, smooth surface, it does not 
buckle or warp, thereby reducing its size, but al- 
ways retains an even and unobstructed passage 



144 FURNACE HEATING 

from the boot at the bottom to the register head 
or top. 

The outside pipe prevents the inner one from be- 
coming chilled, and also prevents any danger of 
setting fire to the woodwork by becoming over- 
heated. 

Cold Air. This is a very important feature, as 
an insufficient supply of cold air to the furnace 
means a lack of warn air in the house. There are 
different opinions as to the proper place to take 
cold air from, whether from the outside, from the 
living rooms, or from the cellar. If taken from the 
outside, the expansion of air is greater than if 
taken from the house. A smaller pipe can be used, 
and therefore costs less to install. The outside air 
being often very cold, it requires heavy firing to 
heat it to the required temperature. With good 
firing satisfactory results can be obtained, but 
with a low fire cold air may be admitted into the 
house without being properly warmed. 

By taking air from the living rooms, the house 
can be heated at a minimum cost of fuel, the ex- 
pense of installation is slightly higher, as it re- 
quires a larger pipe, also register faces and other 
fittings to connect the furnace. By using this meth- 
od, either one or more pipes can be used. The 
area of this pipe or pipes should never be less than 
85 per cent of the combined area of all the hot 
air pipes. 

The best general results are obtained in this 



FURNACE HEATING 



145 



way, for there is always a circulation, the air is 
taken out of the rooms, passed over the heated 
surface of the furnace, and warmed to the proper 
temperature. 

There is only one item in favor of using cellar 
air, this is the expense of installation, as it costs 
very little to make the connection— in all other ren 
spects it is not advisable to use it. 

Openings in Foundation. Great care should be 
exercised to see that all openings in the basement 
or foundation walls are properly closed during the 
cold season, as a current of cold air against any 
hot air pipes, acts as a damper to the proper flow 
of air through them. 

Good Workmanship. Much depends upon a 
furnace being properly installed; it is often said 
that a poor furnace properly installed will give 
better satisfaction than a good furnace poorly put 
in. 



Dimensions and Heating Capacities of Furnaces. 








Height 


Height 


Diam. 






No. 


Height. 


Diam. 


of Ra- 

idator. 


of Cast- 
ing. 


of Cast- 
ing. 


Weight 


Heating Capacity. 




Ft, In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 




Cubic Feet. 


24 


4—6 


2—0 


2—0 


4—11 


4—2 


J200 


9000 to 18000 


28 


4—10 


2—4 


2—4 


5—2 


4—4 


1250 


12000 to 25000 


30 


5—0 


2—6 


2—6 


5—7 


4—8 


1450 


20000 to 35000 


33 


5—0 


2—9 


2—9 


5—7 


5—0 


1750 


30000 to 50000 


36 


5—2 


3—0 


3—0 


5—8 


5—8 


1950 


60000 to 80000 



146 



FURNACE HEATING 



1 
i 
The Loss of Heat by Transmission with A Difference 


of 70 Degrees Fahrenheit Between 


THE 


Indoor 


and the Outside Temperature. 




The loss in heat units per square foot per 


hour by trans- 


mission* for: 






8-inch brick wall. 




32 


12-inch brick wall. 




22 


16-inch brick wall. 




18 


20-inch brick wall. 




16 


24-inch brick wall. 




14 


Single window. 




85 


• Ceiling (unheated attic). 




5 


Floor (unheated basement). 




4 



Wind Velocity. 


Wind. 


Feet per Minute. 


Miles per Hour. 


Scarcely appreciable 


90 


1.02 


Very feeble 


180 


2.04 


Feeble 


360 


4.1 


Brisk 


1080 


12.3 


Very brisk 


1800 


20.4 


High 


2700 


30.7 


Very high 


3600 


40.1 


Violent 


4200 to 5400 


47.8 to 61.4 


Hurricane 


6000 


68.1 



The United States Weather Bureau defines a gale as a wind 
blowing 40 miles per hour. 



FURNACE HEATING 



147 



Table Showing the Proper Size of Furnace Pipes 

to Heat Rooms of Various Dimensions When 

Two Sides Are Exposed. 

Temperature at Register 140 degrees, Room 70 degrees, 
Outside degrees. Rooms 8 to 17 Feet in Width Assumed 
to be 9 Feet High. Rooms 18 to 20 Feet in Width Assumed 
to be 10 Feet High. For Other Heights, Temperatures or 
Exposures Make a Suitable Allowance. When First- Floor 
Pipes are longer than 15 feet use one size larger than 
that stated. 




Length of Room. ; 


8 


9 


10 


11 

7 
8 


12 

7 
8 


13 


14 


15 1 16 


a 

o 

3 

•♦H 
O 


8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


8 
9 

8 
9 


8 
9 

8 
9 


8 

9 

8 
9 


9 




7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


8 
9 


10 






7 
8 


7 
8 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
10 


11 


s 






8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 

8 
10 


8j 8 

10 '10 

8 8 
10 10 


12 








8 
9 


8 
9 


13 












8 
10 


8 
10 


8 9 
10 !19 


14 








8 
10 


9 
10 


9 
10 


15 
















9, 9 
10 11 


16 


















y 
11 



One 12-inch pipe 


= two 9-inch pipes 


One 13-inch pipe 


= two 10-inch pipes 


One 14-inch pipe 


= two 11-inch pipes 


One 15-inch pipe 


, = two 12-inch pipes 


One 16-inch pipe 


= two 12-inch pipes 


One 17-inch pipe 


= two 13-inch pipes 



148 



FURNACE HEATING 



In the space opposite the numbers indicating tne length 
and width of room, the lower number shows the size pipe for 
the first floor, the upper number the size pipe for second floor. 

For third floor use one size smaller than for second floor. 

For rooms with three exposures increase pipe given in table 
in proportion to exposure. 

For halls use pipe of ample size to allow for loss of heat to 
second floor. 



The Approximate Velocity 


of Air in Flues of 


Various Heights. 


Outside temperature 32 degrees 


Fahrenheit. Allowance 


for friction 50 per cent, in flue one 


square foot in area. 


Height 


Excess of temperature of air in 


the flue over that out doors 


























of flue 
in Feet. 


10° 


20° 


30° 


40° 


50° 


60° 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100° 


120° 


140° 


Velocity of air in feet per minute. 


5 


77111136 


159 


179 


199 


216 


234 


250 


266 


296 


325 


10 


109 ! 156 192 


226 


254 


281 


306 


330 


354 


376 


418 


460 


15 


133 192 236 


275 


312 


344 


376 


405 


432 


461 


513 


565 


20 


154^221273 


319 


359 


398 


434 


467 


500 


532 


592 


650 


25 


173 248:305 


357 


402 


445 


485 


522 


560 


595 


660 


728 


30 


189271 


334 


390 


440 


487 


530 


572 


612 


652 


725 


798 


35 


204 293 


360 


423 


475 


527 


574 


620 


662 


705 


783 


862 


40 


218311 


386 


452 


508 


562 


612 


662 


707 


753 


836 


920 


45 


281332408 


478 


538 


597 


650 


700 


750 


800 


887 


977 


50 


244!350'432 


503 


568 


630 


685 


740 


790 


843 


935 


1030 


60 


267 383 473 


552 


622 


690 


750 


810 


865 


923 


1023 


1125 


70 


289 413 510 


596 


671 


746 


810 


875 


935 


995 


1105 


1215 
1300 5 


80 


3081443 545 


638 


717 


795 


867 


935 


1000 


1065 


1182 


90 


327:470 578 


678 


762 


845 


920 


990 


1060 


1130 


1252 


1S30 j 


100 


345:495 610 

! i 


713 802 

| 


890 


970 


1045 


1118 


1190 


1323 


1455 1 



?T >e volume of air in cubic feet per minute dis- 
charged by a flue equals the velocity in feet per 
ainute multiplied by the area in square feet. 



FURNACE HEATING 



149 



Knowing any two of these terms, the third may be 
readily found. 

volume volume 

Velocity = Area = 

area. velocity. 

Example.— Find the area of a flue 20 feet high 
that will discharge 3,000 cubic feet per minute, 
when the excess of temperature in the flue over 
that out doors is 40 degrees. 

Opposite 20 in left hand column and under 40 
on upper line is the number 319, representing the 
velocity in feet per minute. The volume 3,000-r-319 
= 9.4 square feet, the required area. In estimating 
the effective height of a warm air flue from a fur- 
nace, consider the flue to begin 2 feet above the 
grate. 



The Capacity of Furnaces to Maintain an Inside 

Temperature of 70 Degrees with an Outside 

Temperature of Degrees. 

Temperature of entering air, 140 degrees. Rate of com- 
bustion, 5 pounds of coal per square foot of grate surface 
per hour. 



Average diameter of 


Corresponding- area 


fire Dot in inches. 


in sauare feet. 


18 


1.77 


20 


2.18 


22 


2.64 


24 


3.14 


26 


3.69 


28 


4.27 


30 


4.91 


32 


5.58 



Total exposure in square 

feet to which furnace 

is adapted. 



1,110 
1,370 
1,655 
1,970 
2,310 
2,680 
3,080 
3,500 



STEAM AND GAS PITTING. 

The Expansion of Wrought-Iron Steam and 
Water Pipes. To calculate the amount of expan- 
sion in the length of pipes, with different tempera- 
tures, take a pipe 100 feet long, containing cold 
water, or without either steam or water, and being 
at a temperature of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit. 
After heating the water in the pipe to 215 degrees, 
or 1 pound pressure of steam, the pipe will be 
found to be 100 feet l 1 /^ inches in length, with a 
rise in temperature from 32 degrees to 265 degrees, 
or 25 pounds pressure of steam, there will be an in- 
crease in length of 1 8/10 inches. From 32 degrees 
to 297 degrees, or 50 pounds steam pressure, the 
increase would be 2 1/10 inches. And again, arise 
in temperature from 32 degrees to 338 degrees, or 
100 pounds pressure of steam, will give an increase 
in length of 2% inches. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. Wrought iron pipe is now 
almost exclusively used in heating plants. It is 
made at a number of factories, and being of stan- 
dard sizes, pipe bought from different factories 
will be found to fit the same size of fittings. 

It is manufactured from wrought iron of the 
proper gauge, which is rolled into the shape of the 
pipe and raised to a welding heat, after which the 

150 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 151 

edges are welded, by being drawn through a die. 
The small sizes of pipe up to 1% inches are butt 
welded and 1% inches and larger sizes are lap 
welded. 





Fig. 85. 



Fittings. Pipe fittings can be bought from the 
regular supply houses. 





Fig. 86. 



Fittings are mostly of cast and malleable iron, 
except straight couplings, which are usually of 
wrought iron. Elbows, tees and other fittings, 



152 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



which, can be procured of cast iron, are the best to 
use, owing to the fact that being of a harder metal 
than the pipe, and less elastic, they will not yield 





Pig. 87. 



sufficiently to cause leakage when connections are 
made. All fittings should be closely examined for 
flaws before screwing on to the pipe. 





Fig. 88. 



Standard cast iron fittings for use in installing 
steam and hat water heating plants are shown in 
Figs. 85, 86, 87 and 88. 

Pipe Bends. The radius of any bend should not 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



153 



be less than 5 diameters of the pipe and a larger 
radius is much preferable. The length X of 




QUARTER BENDS 



U BENDS 



K — X— 


i 

• 


I * ] 

kg! J 




T^ 



OFFSET BENDS 

Fig. 89. 



straight pipe shown in Fig. 89 at each end of 
bend should be not less than as follows: 



2y 2 -inch Pipe X= 

3 -inch Pipe X= 
3V 2 -inch Pipe X= 

4 -inch Pipe X= 
4%-inch Pipe X= 
h -inch Pipe X= 



-4 inches, 
=4 inches, 
=5 inches, 
=5 inches, 
=6 inches, 
=6 inches 



154 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



6 -inch 
7-inch. 
8 -inch 
10-inch 
12-inch 
14-inch 
15-inch 
16-inch 
18-inch 



Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 



=7 inches, 
=8 inches, 
=9 inches, 
=12 inches, 
=14 inches, 
=16 inches, 
=16 inches, 
=20 inches, 
=22 inches. 



Pipe Machines. The illustrations in Fig. 90 
show two portable pipe-threading machines which 
are compact, moderate in cost, and efficient. For 





Fig. 90. 



the larger sizes of pipe, covering a range of from 
2% to 4 inches they will be found time-saving and 
convenient devices. 

Tools. The tools shown in Figs. 91 and 92 will 
be found sufficient to meet the ordinary require- 
ments for installing a steam or hot- water heating 



STEAM AND GAS PITTING 



155 






Fig. 91. 



156 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 






Fig. 92. 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



157 



plant of ordinary size. The mains of larger size 
than 2 inches may be ordered cut to measurement. 
The contractor should provide himself with two 
pipe vises as shown in Fig. 93, having a range 
of capacity from 2% up to 4 inches inclusive. Such 
machines can be purchased at a very moderate 
cost. 




Fig. 93. 



Gas Fitting. "While electricity is making won- 
derful progress and particularly for lighting, still 
gas holds its own for domestic purposes. Illumin- 
ating gas is not entirely perfect, but when it is 
properly made, carefully delivered to the building 
and there properly handled, the results are so sat- 
isfactory that some time will elapse before any- 
thing else will take its place. The average house 



158 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

is fitted for the use of gas, and the field of discov- 
ery in the use of gas for domestic purposes ap- 
pears to be as great as that of electricity. 

Gas Supply Pipe. The gas supply pipe should 
be connected to the main in the best possible man- 
ner. The pipe should be wrought iron, with fit- 
tings, if any, of malleable or wrought iron. Cast- 
iron fittings should not be used as they crack eas- 
ily. The service pipe should be laid with an in- 
cline to the main in the street, as the earth which 
surrounds the pipe being cold causes some of the 
gas to condense and become liquid. With a fall in 
the supply pipe to the street the condensation can 
therefore flow back into the main pipe. 

With the supply pipe laid in this way there will 
be no flickering of the gas or any unsteady pres- 
sure. 

The gas supply pipe from the street main should 
never be less than one-inch pipe. The meter con- 
nection, pipes should always be of one size larger 
than the meter couplings. All drops should be not 
less than %-inch pipe. 

Street Supply Pipe. It is necessary to have the 
house supply pipe rest on a solid foundation. It 
often happens that in excavating the trench for 
the supply pipe it is dug too deep, or it may be 
dug level, and as the pipe must be pitched back to 
the main, it will have to be blocked up. Do not 
block up a supply pipe on filled-in earth. Start 
the blocking from the bottom of the trench or from 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 159 

the lowest excavated part. There is no special 
amount of pitch required for such pipes as the 
more pitch they have the less liability they will 
have to form a water trap. After the pipe is all 
laid, properly graded and blocked, test the pipe, 
for the purpose of ascertaining if there are any 
leaks, before the pipe is covered up. The pipe be- 
ing found perfectly gas tight, the trench can now 
be filled up. It is a good plan to remain on the 
ground and superintend the work of properly fill- 
ing the ditch as the average laborer who is en- 
gaged to do the filling of such ditches has not suf- 
ficient knowledge of the work to handle the pipe 
with the necessary care. It is not an unusual thing 
to find the gas supply pipe leaking badly, after 
being covered over, by allowing heavy stones to 
fall into the ditch by carelessness on the part of 
the laborers. 

Frost in Pipes. The flow of gas is retarded by 
frost even where the supply pipe has sufficient 
pitch, if it be in too cold a place and not properly 
protected from the cold. This occurs generally in 
the main supply pipe where it passes under the 
sidewalk, and as a large amount of gas passes 
through the supply pipe, a large amount of mois- 
ture comes with the gas. It is this moisture which 
freezes to- the sides of the pipe, like heavy frost on 
a window, but much coarser, and looks very much 
like coarse salt. It will keep on accumulating, 
gradually filling up the pipe toward the center 



160 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

from all sides, until the pipe is entirely filled and 
the flow of gas arrested. 

To remedy this difficulty the pipe should 
be covered with some felt or other material, 
dry sawdust may be also used and placed in a box 
around the pipe. By striking the pipe a sharp blow 
with a hammer the fro&t will fall from the sides of 
the pipe and lie at the bottom of the pipe. This 
does not clear the pipe entirely, but will allow the 
gas to flow through the upper part of the pipe. 
This frost cannot be blown back into the main and 
to clear the frost out entirely alcohol must be 
poured into the pipe at the meter connection, a 
half pint or more, which will melt the frost and 
carry the water which is formed into the main. 

Fittings. Gas fittings should be of malleable 
iron in preference to cast iron as they are lighter 
and neater in appearance 1 , besides being much 
stronger. Standard fittings for use in gas lighting 
work are shown in Figs. 94, 95 and 96. Union el- 
bows and tees are shown in Fig. 97 and gas service 
cocks in Fig. 98. 

Connecting a Meter. The gas pipes in the build- 
ing, as well as the supply pipe from the street, 
should be tested before the meter is connected, to 
avoid the possibility of damaging the meter by 
any sudden pressure. The supply pipes should 
also be blown out so that the liability of dirt being 
carried into the meter by the ga,s will be obviated. 

After connecting the meter care should be taken 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



161 



to turn on the gas slowly until the pressure has 
had a chance to> equalize on the distributing side. 
This prevents a sudden strain on the meter. A 
meter should not be set in a place warmer than 100 
or colder than 40 degrees Fahrenheit, as the oil in 






# 




o o 








Pig. 94. 

the meter diaphragms is very susceptible to heat 
or cold. 

Reading a Meter. One complete revolution of a 
hand registers the number of cubic feet marked 
above the dial. 



162 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



STREET ELBOWS 



ELBOWS 





DROP ELBOWS DROP TEES 





WALL PLATES CHANDELIER HOOKS 





FOUR-WAY TEES CROSS OVERS 




SijPSI 



REDUCING 
COUPLINGS 



EXTENSION PIECES 





Fig. 98. 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



163 




STEAM AND GAS FITTINGS 

ELBOWS 

CAST IRON 

STRAIGHT 

REDUCING ELBOWS 
CAST IRON 



45o ELBOWS 

CAST IRON 




ECCENTRIC 
TEES 

CAST IRON 





REDUCING TEE9 

CAST IRON 
Fig. t«. 



164 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 





WITH FEMALE UNION 



WITH MALE UNION 




WITH FEMALE UNION 




Fig. 97. 



WITH MALE UNION 



Put down the figures on each dial, that the hand 
has just passed, and add two ciphers. The num- 





Fig. 98. 

ber obtained will be the amount of gas in cubic feet 
that the meter has measured. From this amount 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 165 

subtract the last reading of the meter and the re- 
sult is the ■amount of ga$ consumed in the inter- 
vening period. 

A type of meter and one of the most used is 
shown in Fig. 99, and the dial plate of a gas 
meter in Fig. 100. 




Pig. 99. 

Blow-torch. In working around ga,s fixtures 
that are in place, the gas fitter should be very care- 
ful about the walls and ceilings and not blacken 
them with the blow-torch in case he has to heat a 
joint for the purpose of connecting. Proper tools 
should be at hand to do' this work with, and in 



166 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



place of using gasoline or some other kind of oil 
in the torch, the hest kind of alcohol should be 



HOW TO READ 




A GAS METER. 



^^^J^ x <^\ 




used, so that there will be no smoke from it to 
dirty the walls or ceiling. Fig. 101 shows a gas 




Pig. 101. 



fitter's blow- torch, made in the best possible man- 
ner and adapted for many purposes. 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



167 



Mantle Lamp. The mantle lamps of which 
there are a great many different varieties, resem- 




FiK. 102. 



ble somewhat the old-fashioned round or Argand 
type of burner, but the manner in which the light 
is produced is entirely different in the mantle 



168 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

lamp. The light produced by this lamp does not 
come from the flame itself, as in the case of an or- 
dinary gas burner, but from the mantle, and is due 
to the intense heat to which it is subject by the ac- 
tion of the Bunsen flame within the lower end of 
the mantle. Fig. 102 shows one form of a mantle 
lamp. 

In transferring a mantle from its box to the 
burner, take the two ends of the string in one 
hand and lift the mantle out of the paper tube. 
By holding the top part of the burner in the other 
hand and below the mantle, the latter can safely 
be lowered into position. Before fixing the chim- 
ney examine the mantle, as a faulty one will be 
exchanged by the dealer if returned before being 
lit. A mantle is made up of a regular series of 
loops, each row connected to the one above, and if 
at any point a loop does not join the row above, 
the mantle should be returned as faulty, as it is 
almost certain to develop a break as soon as used. 
Other faults, such as broken collars, broken sus- 
pending loops, fractured sides, and torn bottoms, 
are noticeable at a glance > 

When lighting incandescent burners, the light 
should be applied from underneath the chimney, 
but above the screen which prevents lighting 
back. Some prefer to light from the top of the 
chimney, in which case the gas should be turned 
oa sufficient time before the light is applied to 
allow the gas to expel all the air in the chimney, 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 169 

so that little or no explosion shall take place, and 
the mantle may be free from consequent damage. 

The breakage of mantles when in position may 
be avoided by attention to a few rales. Fix in- 
candescent burners only on good sound and clear 
gas fittings. Where there is much vibration, use 
one of the anti-vibration frames now on the mar- 
ket, these frames are specially suitable for hang- 
ing lights, such as the arc lamps, etc. All pend- 
ants for the incandescent light should be supplied 
with loose joints, and they should never be 
screwed stiff, or the mantle will break if it gets 
the* slightest knock. In draughty places, such as 
lobbies, passages, and corridors, a mica chimney 
is desirable, so as to avoid breakage of the chim- 
ney, and to preserve the mantle. 

If a newly fixed burner gives an unsatisfactory 
light, either there may be an insufficient gas sup- 
ply, or the mantle may be much too wide, perhaps 
both conditions exist. In the first case the mantle 
will be well lit all round the bottom, with the light 
getting worse towards the top. If two of the four 
air-holes in the Bunsen tube are covered by the 
fingers, the light will at once improve. Theref ore, 
either reduce the amount of air admitted, or in- 
crease the quantity of gas supplied. To reduce 
the amount of air, unscrew the Bunsen tube and 
fix inside it a piece of card or tin to cover two 
opposite holes. To increase the gas supply, re- 
move the burner from the fittings, aaad unscrew 



170 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

the Bunsen tube, when the gas regulator nipple 
will be seen to consist of a brass tube having a 
metal top with small holes, which should be very 
slightly enlarged. Very handy for this purpose 
is a hat-pin, ground to a long taper and passed up 
from the under side. When a mantle is too wide, 
one side only is incandescent, the other side hang- 
ing away from the gas ring. This fault is, of 
course, easily seen before the burner is used, if, 
however, the mantle has been lit, the light can be 
improved by slightly lowering the mantle and, as 
this is tapered, presenting a smaller surface to 
the flame. Take off the mantle, lifting it by a wire 
under the suspending loop. Then place the wire 
across a glass tumbler with the mantle suspended 
inside. Take out the support, nick it with a file 
about % inch from the plain end, and break it off, 
then replace the mantle. 

It is noticed that the brilliant light given by a 
new burner does not last, the light after a fort- 
night probably commencing to decrease. If kept in 
use, the mantle top becomes coated with soot and 
a smoky flame issues. The burners go wrong in 
a much shorter time if used in a room in which a 
fire is constantly burning. The cause of this is 
simply dust, which is drawn in at the air-holes 
and carried up the Bunsen tube. It cannot pass 
away owing to the screen, to which it adheres, 
thus preventing the gas getting away quickly 
enough to draw in the proper amount of air. To 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 171 

remedy this, take off the mantle and, with a small 
brush (an old nail- or tooth-brush), remove the 
dirt, blowing through the screen afterwards. 
Then replace the mantle, clean and replace the 
chimney, unscrew the Bunsen tube, and brush the 
nipple clean. Blow the dust from the tube and 
then refix the top. If the mantle is covered with 
soot, leave the gas half on until the soot is re- 
moved. To keep the burners at their best, this 
process should be done at least monthly. If the 
burners are in a dusty place they will require 
more frequent cleaning. 

Failure of the bye-pass in arc lamps is a com- 
mon fault, even in new burners. The bye-pass 
light may go out after the gas is turned on. In a 
new burner this is often caused by one of the two 
set-screws on the side of the burner being inserted 
too far; in this case, after unscrewing a complete 
turn, the burner will most likely work. It is 
sometimes necessary to take out both screws and 
to remove the grease adhering inside the end of 
the hole. 

Gas Proving Pump. Considerable time will be 
saved by having a good force pump with which the 
supply pipe in the street and the house pipes may 
be tested. A gas proving pump is shown in Fig. 
103. 

Cleaning Gas Fixtures. If the gas fixtures can- 
not be kept covered in summer time, they can be 
kept clean by going over them every two or three 



172 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



days with a soft, damp cloth, which must not be 
pressed hard against the fixture, as there will be 
danger of rubbing off the thin coat of lacquer. All 
that is to be taken off is the fly-specks, for if they 
are allowed to remain for more than two or three 




Fig. 103. 

days they will eat in through the lacquer and also 
through the plating and then the more the fixtures 
are cleaned the worse they will look. No powder 
or polish of any kind should be used for the pur- 
pose of cleaning gas fixtures, as it will at once de- 
stroy the only protection a gas fixture has, that is 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



173 



the coat of lacquer. After using a damp cloth to 
c]ean the fixture, dry each part at once with a 
soft, dry cloth, as it will injure the coat of lacquer 
to allow water to dry on the fixture: Even the 
moisture from the hand will sometimes leave a 
stain that can never be cleaned off. 



Flow of Natural Gas Through A One-Inch 




Circular Opening 


• 




Pressure, 


Cubic Feet 


Inches 


Cubic Feet 


Pressure, 
Pounds per 


Cubic Feet 


Inches 
Water. 


per Hour. 


Mercury. 


per Hour. 


Square 
Inch. 


per Hour. 


2 


2,041 


1 


5,168 


5 


17,186 


4 


2,897 


2 


7,632 


6 


18,989 


6 


3,542 


3 


9,305 


8 


21,778 


8 


4,116 


4 


10,552 


10 


23,388 


10 


4,563 


5 


12,019 


12 


25,479 






6 


13,220 


15 


27,876 






7 


14,182 


20 


33,027 






8 


15,316 


25 


88,002 






9 


16,025 


30 


42,762 






10 


16,970 


35 
40 
50 
60 


48,074 
52,761 
62,352 
71,125 



Height of Column of Liquid to Produce One Pound 

Pressure per Square Inch' at 62 Degrees 

Temperature. 



Water 

Machinery oil 
Mercury 



27.71 

30.80 

2.04 



GAS BURNERS. 

While much has been written upon the princi- 
ple involved in obtaining a light from gas, very 
little is generally known as to what is required 
and what is the best means to adopt to secure the 
greatest amount of light at the least cost, and 
with the least vitiation of the atmosphere of the 
room where the light is required. Many and vari- 
ous improvements have been brought forward 
for the accomplishment of these objects, some 
require only a very slight alteration to the exist- 
ing fittings and yet give very excellent results, 
while others secure a very high illuminating 
effect and at the same time not only remove the 
vitiated air which has been used to support the 
combustion of the flame, but at the same time 
carry off the air rendered useless for supporting 
life by the inspiration and absorption of the oxy- 
gen. 

The principle which is involved in the burning 
of gas may with advantage be here mentioned. 
Coal gas contains many very different substances, 
about one-half of it is hydrogen, one-third marsh 
gas, and perhaps one-tenth is carbon monoxide. 

The three gases mentioned in the statement are 
of no value as regards the light they will give by 

174 



GAS BURNERS 175 

themselves, but they are capable of giving a great 
heat when ignited, and this heat is utilized for the 
purpose of rendering white hot the small quantity 
of hydro-carbons in the gas, and it is this incan- 
descence of the very finely divided carbon parti- 
cles which makes the flame luminous. 

When a gas burner is lighted, the rush of gas 
from the orifice of the burner causes a current of 
air to pass upon each side of the flame, and thus 
supply the oxygen necessary to support combus- 
tion, the portion of the flame nearest to the burner 
is almost non-luminous, and is, in fact, unignited 
gas enclosed in a thin envelope of bright red 
flame. That this is really unconsumed gas can be 
shown, by placing the lower end of a glass tube 
into this portion of the flame and applying a light 
at the upper end, when the gas issuing from it is 
seen to burn with an ordinary flame. The reason 
that this portion of the gas is not luminous is that 
the quantity of oxygen which is able to get to the 
flame at this point is only sufficient to cause the 
outer portion to be in a state of incandescence. 
That there is solid carbon in the flame may be 
seen by inserting a piece of cold metal or porcelain 
in the white portion of the flame, which, by re- 
ducing the temperature of the carbon, becomes 
coated with soot upon the under side. The same 
effect takes place when the cold air is allowed to 
blow upon the surface of the flame, the excess of 
oxygen presented to the flame causing a cooling of 



176 GAS BURNERS 

the heating gases and a consequent loss of light, 
as the particles of carbon are not then sufficiently 
heated to be made white hot and to give off light, 
and they then allow the carbon to pass off in the 
form of soot and to blacken the ceilings and paint 
of the rooms. This is more likely to occur with 
high quality gas, which contains more particles of 
hydro-carbons, and if there be an insufficient sup- 
ply of oxygen to the flame a larger proportion of 
soot will be allowed to escape and settle upon the 
ceilings, etc. Another source of blackening of the 
ceilings is the nearness of the burners and the ab- 
sence of a guard over them to deflect and spread 
the products of combustion over a large space. 
The real explanation of this effect is that aqueous 
vapour formed by the burning gas is condensed 
on the ceiling, and dust particles which are float- 
ing in the air are thereby caused to adhere to the 
ceilings. With high quality gases small burners 
should be used, so that the gas may be more 
thoroughly consumed. 

It appears that the first burners were simply 
pieces of pipe with one end stopped up. In the 
centre of the end was drilled a small hole, and the 
light given off, principally owing to the shape of 
the flame, was very small. Then was invented the 
bat wing burner, which has a slot cut in the dome- 
shaped top, and this gave a flame somewhat of 
the shape of a bat 's wing, hence the name. Then 
came the union jet, which is an arrangement very 



GAS BURNERS 177 

generally in domestic use at the present day. It 
consists of a piece of brass tube plugged with a 
piece of steatite or porcelain with two holes in it 
drilled at such an angle that the two streams of 
gas issuing from them meet, and cause the flame of 
gas to spread and form a flame of horseshoe shape. 
One of the special points to be noticed in these 
burners is that the holes in them should be of 
comparatively large size, and the pressure of the 
gas when delivered from the burner reduced to the 
lowest point at which a firm flame can be main- 
tained. This can be done best by means of what is 
known as a governor, which is in effect a self-act- 
ing valve which allows only just soi much gas to 
pass as may be required. 

Passing on to the more modern styles of burn- 
ers, of which there are many patterns, such as the 
regenerative burners, it is found that all these em- 
body the same principle, which is to use the heat 
generated by the flame to heat the gas supply and 
the air supply so that the cooling effect of the air, 
which causes the blue portion of an ordinary flat 
flame, is considerably reduced, and the particles 
of carbon are rendered more rapidly incandescent, 
and, being heated to a greater temperature, attain 
greater luminosity and are kept for a longer 
period at this white heat. 

The earliest arrangement of such a burner was 
invented in 1854, and consisted of an argand burn- 
er with two chimneys, one outside of the other, 



178 GAS BURNERS 

the air supply to the flame having to pass down 
between the two glasses, and so to become heated 
before it was led to the bottom of the burner. This 
answered very well, but the breakage of the chim- 
ney glasses was a considerable expense, and de- 
barred many from adopting the system. This 
trouble is quite overcome in the modern regenera- 
tive burners, as the chimneys are made of metal 
and the burner is inverted, so that the flame is 
spread outwards instead of, as in the argand 
burner, upwards. The regenerative burner gives a 
light having four times the illuminating power of 
the flat-flame burner. 

With the incandescent burners, quite a modern 
invention, the principle of admitting air to mix 
with the gas before lighting is employed as in the 
Bunsen heating burner, and this, while taking 
away the luminosity of the flame, causes it to give 
off a much greater amount of heat, this heat being 
utilised to render a mantle of rare earths incandes- 
cent or white hot. These mantles are made conical 
in shape, and when made white hot emit a most 
pleasing white light, which is about five or six 
times more intense than that given off by the ordi- 
nary flat flame burner. 

With a properly arranged ventilating regenera- 
tive burner, consuming 20 cubic feet of gas per 
hour, and properly fitted, not only can all its own 
product of combustion be removed, but also the air 
vitiated by breathing can be removed at the rate of 



GAS BURNERS 179 

more than 5,000 cubic feet per hour from the up- 
per part of the! room. 

The comparative quantity of air vitiated by dif- 
ferent illuminants giving the same amount of light 
is shown by the following table:— 

Gas burnt in union jets 1 

Lamp burning sperm oil 1.6 

Lamp burning kerosene oil 2.25 

Tallow candles 4.35 

From this table it will be seen that kerosene 
lamps use up more than twice the amount of the 
oxygen of the air that gas does, while tallow can- 
dles use more than four times the amount. 

For a light of 32 candle-power, tallow candles 
would vitiate as much air as would be required 
by about 36 adult persons, kerosene oil lamps as 
much asi fifteen adults, while gas varied from an 
amount of air required for nine and a half adults 
when a batwing burner was used, to eight and a 
half when an argand burner was used. In these 
experiments not only was the quantity of oxygen 
consumed taken into consideration, but carbon 
dioxide and the water vapour were all taken ac- 
count of. 

Special attention must be directed to the neces- 
sity of having burners suitable to the quality of 
gas which is being used. It may be taken as a 
fairly general rule that the higher the illuminat- 
ing power of the gas the smaller the burner should 



180 GAS BURNERS 

be. With unsuitable burners, not only blacken- 
ing of the ceilings, but a far lower state of effi- 
ciency as regards the illuminating power of the 
light obtained from a given quantity of gas will 
result. 

The effect of using bad burners is primarily 
that the light capable of being developed from the 
consumption of a definite quantity of gas is not 
obtained, consequently more gas is burnt than 
necessity requires, in other words, gas is wasted, 
and with imperfect combustion, deleterious prod- 
ucts are given off, vitiating the atmosphere and 
endangering health. 

That the burners which are most economical in 
gas consumption are the most expensive at first 
cost is certainly the case to some extent, but the 
amount of the saving effected by their use quickly 
repays the first cost, and thereafter the money 
saved goes directly into the pocket of the user of 
the burner. The incandescent burner is the most 
economical burner that is at present known, and 
where gas is at a high price it is a very distinct 
advantage, as the quantity of gas required for a 
given amount of light is only about one>-fifth of 
that used with the ordinary burner. Then comes 
the argand burner, which is superior to the union 
jet or flat-flame burner, but in all these an ar- 
rangement known as a governor is generally to 
be found, by which is regulated the quantity of 
gas that can find its way to the point of ignition, 



GAS BUHNERS 181 

and, if only just sufficient is allowed to pass so 
that none is wasted, gas is economized. These 
governors are also made for use with the ordinary 
flat-flame burner. 

As has been said, the principal gas burners now 
in use are the flat-flame, argand, and incandes- 
cent. Flat-flame burners embrace the union jet, 
or fishtail, and the batwing. In the union jet or 
fishtail the gas issues through two apertures in 
a steatite plate inserted in the top of a cylindrical 
brass tube, threaded at its lower end for the pur- 
pose of attaching to a gas-fixture. The holes in 
the steatite tip through which thq gas issues are 
inclined towards each other at an angle, so that 
the gas issues in two streams which unite into one 
flat flame at right angles to a plane passing 
through the two holes. One of the reasons of the 
adoption of steatite for the tip of the gas burner 
was the fact that it required a verv high heat to 
harm it. Steatite is a natural stone found in vari^ 
ous parts of the world, principally in Germany. 
Chemically it is a double silicate of magnesium, 
and a substitute for the natural substance may be 
obtained by mixing silicate of magnesium and sil- 
icate of potash. Natural steatite is of a very fine 
grain, and softer than ivory, it admits of being 
worked to a very fine polish, but after it has been 
burned in a kiln it becomes harder than the hard- 
est steel, and will resist a very high temperature, 
about 2,000° Fahrenheit. In forming the steatite 



182 GAS BURNERS 

into burner tips, the material is finely powdered, 
moistened with water, and kneaded into a plastic 
condition, after which it is moulded to the requi- 
site shape and finally burnt to harden it. The 
diameter of the orifices in the steatite tips, 
through which the gas issues, differs in size, the 
aim being in each case to produce a flame of a 
thickness suited to the quality of the gas the 
burner is intended to consume. 

The batwing burner resembles the fishtail or 
union in its general features, but- differs in the 
manner in which the gas issues from it. In this 
form of burner the hollow tip is made dome- 
shaped and has a narrow slit cut across it and ex- 
tending some little distance down. The slit 
varies in width to suit different qualities of gas. 
The batwing burner requires less pressure than 
the union jet, with the result that the gas issues 
with less force, so> that the flame produced in 
burners of this class is not so stiff as that obtained 
with a union burner. Consequently it is neces- 
sary to employ globes with burners of this de- 
scription in order to protect them from draught, 
which would cause them to flicker and smoke. 



GAS STOVES AND FIRES. 

An examination of the principles of gas stoves, 
and a consideration of the advantages and disad- 
vantages of these heating appliances, may appro- 
priately precede any description of gas stoves 
themselves. A point often ignored in the heating 
of rooms is that a, room will not feel warm until 
its walls reach the same temperature as the air 
which it contains. Until this occurs, the room 
will feel draughty, owing to the fact that the walls 
are depriving the air of the heat given out by the 
stove. 

It is necessary to examine the conditions of the 
room or building to be heated before making any 
calculation as to the amount of gas required to 
heat it. Architects calculate the cubical contents 
of the room, and gauge from this the size and 
character of the heating appliances required. A 
better plan is to calculate the area of the wall sur- 
face, and, in ordinary dwelling-houses, allow that 
one-half a heat unit is absorbed by each square 
foot per hour for each degree Fahrenheit rise 
after the necessary warming up is complete. 

The number of heat units generated per cubic 
foot of gas of sixteen candle-power, theoretically 
is 670 to 680, therefore, to raise the temperature 

183 



184 GAS STOVES AND FIRES 

in a room which, has been once warmed, it is 
necessary to allow a consumption of 1 cubic foot 
for every 1,300 square feet of wall surface. For 
the preliminary heating, however, considerably 
more than this is required, and as there should be 
a change of air in the room about every twenty 
minutes, practically three-fourths of the heat pro- 
duced by the stoves passes away by ventilation, 
and consequently about four times the above-men- 
tioned quantity of heat is required to raise the 
temperature of a room from the commencement, 
when it is at about the same temperature as the 
external air. 

It was at one time recommended to fix a row of 
Bunsen burners in front of or underneath an ordi- 
nary coal fire-grate, filled either with bla,ck fuel, 
made of fireclay, or with small coke. It gave a 
very cheerful appearance, but it was found that 
the quantity of coke used, together with the con- 
sumption of gas, rendered the plan uneconomical. 
Many persons set a high value upon the cheerful 
appearance of this arrangement, and are willing 
to pay for it, and makers have brought forward 
improvements by which a saving of gas is effected. 
Still, gas fires in ordinary coal grates can only be 
recommended in preference to gas stoves when 
economy is not essential. 

Stoves in which air passes over heated surfaces 
are more economical than ordinary gas stoves, 
but, on the other hand, they are more liable to 



GAS STOTES AND FIBES 185 

cause unpleasant odours through the heating of 
the dust particles. With these stoves, as also with 
hot-air and hot-water pipes, as distinct from 
grates, the heated air has a great tendency to rise 
to the top of the room, leaving the feet cold while 
the head is too warm. The same effect is noticed 
where enclosed stoves are set forward some dis- 
tance into the room, but these stoves are very eco- 
nomical, and where fuel is dear this is a para- 
mount consideration. One pound of coal burnt in 
an ordinary grate requires, for its proper com- 
bustion, 300 cubic feet of air having a tempera- 
ture of 620° Fahrenheit, and 1 volume of gas for 
complete combustion requires 5% volumes of air. 
In atmospheric or Bunsen burners the average 
mixture of gas and air is 1 volume of gas to 2.3 
volumes of air, consequently, a further supply of 
air around the flame is necessary to cause com- 
plete combustion, and an analysis of the gases, 
taken from the centre of the glowing fuel, shows 
that often 10 per cent of carbon monoxide exists, 
and, should down-draughts occur, this must find 
its way unnoticed— for it has neither smell nor 
color— into the room, hence the necessity for en- 
suring a good draught from the stove. Curiously 
enough, however, the analyses of gases in the flue 
during the burning of the gas stove do not show a 
trace of this deadly gas. An average of some 
twenty-four stoves tested in this way showed the 
presence of 12 per cent of oxygen, 84 per cent of 



186 GAS STOVES AND FIRES 

nitrogen, and 4 per cent of carbonic acid, thus 
proving that all the carbon monoxide had been 
converted into carbonic acid before leaving the 
stove when burning in the proper manner. This 
shows conclusively that flues are a necessity with 
gas stoves in which Bunsen burners are in use, 
although they need not be so large as the usual 
coal-grate flue, but where flues are not possible, 
only such stoves as employ ordinary lighting 
burners and utilise the heat radiated from a pol- 
ished surface should be fixed. 

Where a smoky chimney exists, a gas stove will 
not cure it, unless the fault is due to a contraction 
of the flue, by which the flow of the draught is 
impeded. In that case a much smaller flue for 
carrying off the products of combustion being suf- 
ficient with a gas stove as compared with a coal 
fire, the trouble will probably disappear, but it 
would be well to ascertain the origin of the fault 
before recommending the adoption of a gas stove 
as a remedy. 



GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS. 

In fitting workshops with gas, it is important 
that strong materials be employed and it is desir- 
able to use iron pipes throughout. Where a row 
of benches is fixed upon each side of a workshop, 
it is usual to run a pipe along just below the ceil- 
ing, with tees between each window, from these a 
small pipe is carried down to either a single or 
double swing iron bracket. Some firms who make 
gas-fittings, supply iron brackets, 'but they can be 
made up quickly from the fittings and short pieces 
of iron pipe. Brass swivels wear considerably 
better than those that are made of iron, and do 
not corrode and stick in the working parts. 

When the lights are to be located down the mid- 
dle of a workshop where lathes or other machine 
tools are used, the only brass parts are the cocks 
and burner elbows, the ordinary iron tee being very 
suitable for the centre of the pendant. Where 
more than one floor is to be lighted, fix on the 
supply pipe a governor for regulating the quan- 
tity of gas delivered, otherwise the pressure due 
to the height of the upper floors will cause a low- 
ering of the light in the ground floor or basement. 
It is also an advantage to have each floor separate- 

187 



188 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 

ly supplied from the main, so that each floor may 
be shut off entirely without interfering with the 
others, and if a separate meter be supplied for 
each floor, the quantity of gas consumed in pro- 
portion to the work done after dark may be check- 
ed, and any escape noted. Where a pipe falls, a 
pipe syphon or syphon-box should be fixed, as the 
temperature is subject to extreme changes and the 
quantity of condensation is much greater than in 
private houses. 

When the pipes are run through the floor and 
up the legs of the lathes or other machinery, it is 
usual to bend the pipe to the exact curves taken 
by the machine, «and to fix the pipe in its place by 
means of bands of iron bent to the curve of the 
pipe, and fixed to the machine by two small set 
screws. These bands may also be found useful 
in fitting up houses where the nature of the wall 
or floor will not permit the use of the ordinary 
pipe-hook. 

It is often found necessary to fit up in a work- 
shop over each machine a bracket arranged so as 
to move in any direction to suit the convenience 
of the workman. One way of making these fit- 
tings is to make the elbows of the brackets of two 
double swing swivels— one upright and one on its 
side. Another way is to have two lines of pipes 
from the support, and to connect both at each end 
to double swivels, while between the upper and 
lower pipe, and laid at an angle, is a thin bar, 



GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 189 

which is fixed on to the upper pipe, and can be 
clamped to the lower one when the exact position 
required has been obtained. This form of bracket 
is useful in drawing offices, where the burner and 
shade commonly in use cause the other pattern of 
bracket to gradually fall downwards on to the 
table, whereas the second arrangement always 
keeps parallel, and, if tightly clamped, cannot 
change its position without breaking the thin 
metal bar, which should be made sufficiently 
strong to withstand the strain due to the weight 
of the heaviest burner chimney and shade likely 
to be placed upon it. 

In making brackets and pendants it is conveni- 
ent to know a quick and efficient way to bend iron 
pipes. The exact shape required having been 
drawn full size upon paper the latter is tacked or 
posted on to a rough board. Strong cut nails are 
then driven in it to follow the desired curve, the 
nails being half the outside diameter of the pipe 
from the drawn line, so that the centre of the pipe, 
when bent, may lie directly over the drawn line. 
The iron pipe is heated in a forge fire or in a fur- 
nace, the latter heats the pipe equally over the 
length required. The end is inserted between the 
lines of nails, and, with the aid of a pair of pliers, 
is quickly made to follow the curves indicated by 
the nails. Nails are not necessary on the outer 
side of the curves, except at the starting point, 
where a firm grip of the pipe must be insured. 



190 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 

Where many pipes are to be bent to the same 
shape, the board is replaced by a square plate, 
with holes all over it, cast or wrought-iron curves 
replacing the nails. The saving in time and the 
accuracy of the bending soon repay the additional 
outlay. In bending iron pipe, proceed gradually, 
and make only small curves at a time, or the pipe 
will collapse. 

For shop brackets, metal backs are found suit- 
able. These metal backs are supplied with the 
fittings, and are drilled and countersunk ready 
for erection, space being left for the pipe to screw, 
into the top of the swivel joint. A metal back 
makes a strong job, and answers every purpose 
where very neat finish is not necessary. 

In all workshops ventilation is a prime requisite, 
and must be provided for, more especially where 
the rooms are low and a considerable number of 
workmen and gas lights are employed. Gas is an 
excellent draught inductor, an ordinary batwing 
or union jet burner consuming 1 cubic foot of gas 
per hour, when placed in a six-inch ventilating 
tube 12 feet long, will cause 2,460 cubic feet of air 
per hour to pass up the tube, and this induced 
draught can be easily adapted for the removal of 
the heated and vitiated air from the upper por- 
tion of the room. Each person present will give 
off per hour about 17.7 cubic feet of air, of which 
from .6 to .8 of a cubic foot will be carbonic acid 
(C0 2 ), the amount of C0 2 evolved from the com- 



GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 191 

bustion of coal gas is equal practically to one-half 
the quantity of gas burnt, and an ordinary gas 
burner may be considered as being equivalent to 
at least three adults in its effect upon the atmos- 
phere. The air space required in a workshop is 
250 cubic feet for each person during the day and 
400 feet at night. Again, 500 cubic feet of fresh 
air per person should be delivered into a room 
during each hour, and therefore the same quantity 
of vitiated air must be drawn away by some 
means, no method is more suitable or so effective 
as the one above proposed, in which a lighted 
gas burner is enclosed by a ventilating shaft. A 
well-constructed ceiling burner has an excellent 
effect upon the ventilation of a room, workshop, 
or hall, when a properly arranged vertical shaft, 
usually of sheet iron, is carried up through the 
roof, and will at the same time assist greatly in 
the general illumination of the shop. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to 80 lbs. 

One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 

192 



USEFUL INFORMATION 193 

expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires 1% British Thermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
units. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 



194 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 
surface, and the passage of air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least on the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of the 

surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 
Friction is greater comparatively, in small 



USEFUL INFORMATION 195 

pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 
in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
ca,se of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 den 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



196 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 

A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to the square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 90 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 



Pressure of 


Water for each Foot in Height. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


1 

2 

5 

10 


.43 

.86 

2.16 

4.33 


15 
20 
25 
40 


6.49 

8.66 
10.82 
17.32 


50 
70 

80 
100 


21.65 

30.32 
84.65 
43.31 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



197 



Boiling Points of Various Fluids. 



Substance. 



Degrees. 



Water in Vacuum 98 

Water, Atmosph'c Pres. 212 
Alcohol 173 

Sulphuric Acid 240 



Substance. 



Degrees. 



Refined Petroleum 316 

Turpentine 315 

Sulphur 570 

Linseed Oil 597 



Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs, 0.036 pounds 

One U. S. gallon weighs ... 8 . 33 " 
One Imperial gallon " ... 10 . 00 " 

One U. S. gallon equals 231 . 00 cubic inches 

One Imperial gallon " ... 277 . 274 < ' 
One cubic foot of water 

equals 7 . 48 U. S. gallons 

Liquid Measure. 
4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 



Size of Pipe in Inches. 


Sq. Ft. in one Lineal Ft. 


Gallons of Water in 100 
Feet in Length. 


*A 


.27 


2.77 


1 


.34 


4.50 


\ X A 


.43 


7.75 


IX 


.50 


10.59 


2 


.62 


17.43 


2% 


.75 


24.80 


3 


.92 


38.38 


s% 


• 1.05 


51.36 


4 


1.17 


66.13 



198 USEFUL INFORMATION 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall h? ve 
the same area as a given square, multiply one ride 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
To find the number of gallons in a rectangilar 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth mid 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure b^ing 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



USEFUL INFORMATION 199 

submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example —Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 x 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 x .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons ui a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 



200 USEFUL INFORMATION 

work into a strong mixture of potash, soda,, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Eemoving Grease Stains from Marble. Mix 1% 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
strong cotton cloth. 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half part of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 

iy. 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 



USEFUL INFORMATION 201 

with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Bust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

Removing Rust from Steel. Mix one-half ounce 
of cyannide of potassium, % ounce of castile soap, 
1 ounce of whiting, adding enough water to form a 
paste, and apply to the steel. Rinse it off with a 
solution formed of one-half ounce of cyannide of 
potassium and 2 ounces of water. 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF COAL, OIL, AND 

GAS. 

In good practice, with boilers of proper con- 
struction and proportioned to the work— 

One pound of coal will evaporate 10 pounds of 
water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of oil will evaporate 16 pounds of 
water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of natural gas will evaporate 20 
pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of coal equals 11.225 cubic feet of 
natural gas. 

Two thousand pounds of c6al (1 ton) equals 22,- 
450 cubic feet of natural gaa. 



202 USEFUL INFORMATION 

One pound of oil equals 18.00 cubic feet of 
natural gas. 

One barrel of oil (42 gallons) equals 5,310.00 
cubic feet of natural gas. 

1.125 cubic feet of natural gas will evaporate 1 
pound of water. 

1.00 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860 Heat 
Units. 

1,000 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860,000 
Heat Units. 

One ton of coal will equal 19,307,000 Heat Units. 

One barrel of oil will equal 4,566.600 Heat Units. 

In ordinary practice, about twice as much of the 
above fuels are required to evaporate the above 
amounts. 



USEFUL KINKS. 

Paint for Iron. Dissolve y 2 pound of asphalt- 
Tim and !/2 pound of pounded resin in 2 pounds 
of tar oil. Mix hot in an iron kettle, but do 
not allow it to come in contact with the fire. It 
may be used as soon as cold, and is good both 
for outdoor wood and ironwork. 

Recipe for Heat-Proof Paint. A good cylinder 
and exhaust pipe paint is made as follows: 

Two pounds of black oxide of manganese, 3 
pounds of graphite and 9 pounds of Fuller's 
earth, thoroughly mixed. Add a compound of 
10 parts of sodium silicate, 1 part of glucose 
and 4 parts of water, until the consistency is such 
that it can be applied with a brush. 

Rust Joint Composition. This is a cement 
made of sal-ammoniac 1 pound, sulphur % pound, 
cast-iron turnings 100 pounds. The whole 
should be thoroughly mixed and moistened with 
a little water. If the joint is required to set 
very quick, add % pound more sal-ammoniac. 
Care should be taken not to use too much sal- 
ammoniac, or the mixture will become rotten. 

Removing Rust from Iron. Iron may be 
quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or 

203 



204 USEFUL KINKS 

washing with nitric acid one part, muriatic acid 
one part and water twelve parts. After using 
wash with clean water. 

Making Pipe Joints. Never screw pipe to- 
gether for either steam, water or gas without 
putting white or red lead on the joints. 

Many times in taking pipe apart the joints 
are stuck so hard that it is impossible to un- 
screw the pipe; heat the coupling (not the pipe) 
by holding a hot iron on it, or hammer the 
coupling with a light hammer, either one will 
expand the coupling and break the joint so it 
can be easily unscrewed. 

Annealing Cast Iron. To anneal cast iron, 
heat it in a slow charcoal fire to a dull red heat; 
then cover it over about two inches with fine 
charcoal, then cover all with ashes. Let it lay 
until cold. Hard cast iron can be softened 
enough in this way to be filed or drilled. This 
process will be exceedingly useful to iron found- 
ers, as by this means there will be a great saving 
of expense in making new patterns. 

To make a casting of precisely the same size 
of a broken casting without the original patterns : 
Put the pieces of broken casting together and 
mould them, and cast from this mould. Then 
anneal it as above described; it will expand to 
the original size of the pattern, and there re- 
main in that expanded state. 

Preventing Iron or Steel from Rusting. The 



USEFUL KINKS 205 

best treatment for polished iron or steel, which 
has a habit of growing gray and lustreless, is 
to wash it very clean with a stiff brush and am- 
monia soapsuds, rinse well and dry by heat if 
possible, then oil plentifully with sweet oil and 
dust thickly with powdered quick lime. Let the 
lime stay on two days, then brash it off with a 
clean stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, 
and nib with cloths until the lustre comes out. 
By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be 
kept from rust almost indefinitely. 

Loosening Rusted Screws. One of the simplest 
and readiest ways of loosening a rusted screw is 
to apply heat to the head of the screw. A small 
bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened 
in the fire and applied for two or three minutes 
to the head of a rusty screw, will, as soon as it 
heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy 
with the screwdriver as if it were only a recently 
inserted screw. This is not particularly novel, 
but it is worth knowing. 

Tinning Cast Iron. To successfully coat cast- 
ings with tin they must be absolutely clean and 
free from sand and oxide. They are usually 
freed from imbedded sand in a rattler or tumb- 
ling box, which also tends to close the surface 
grain and give the article a smooth metallic 
face. The articles should be then placed in a 
hot pickle of one part of sulphuric acid to four 
parts of water, in which they are allowed to 



206 USEFUL KINKS 

remain from one to two hours, or until the re- 
cesses are free from scale and sand. Spots may 
be removed by a scraper or wire brush. The 
castings are then washed in hot water and kept 
in clean hot water until ready to dip. For a 
flux, dip in a mixture composed of four parts 
of a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac in water 
and one part of hydrochloric acid, hot. Then dry 
the castings and dip them in the tin pot. The 
tin should be hot enough to quickly bring the 
castings to its own temperature when perfectly 
fluid, but not hot enough to quickly oxidize the 
surface of the tin. A sprinkling of pulverized 
sal-ammoniac may be made on the surface of the 
tin, or a little tallow or palm oil may be used 
to clear the surface and make the tinned work 
come out clear. As soon as the tin on the cast- 
ings has chilled or set, they should be washed 
in hot sal soda water and dried in sawdust. 

Removing Scale from Iron Castings. Immerse 
the parts in a mixture composed of one part of 
oil of vitriol to three parts of water. In six to 
ten hours remove the castings, and wash them 
thoroughly with clean water. A weaker solution 
can be used by allowing a longer time for the 
action of the solution. 

Cleaning Brass Castings. If greasy, the cast- 
ings should be cleaned by boiling in lye or 
potash. The first pickle is composed of nitric 
acid one quart, water six to eight quarts. After 



USEFUL KINKS 207 

pickling in this mixture the castings should be 
washed in clear warm or hot water, and the fol- 
lowing pickle be then used: Sulphuric acid one 
quart, nitric acid two quarts, muriatic acid, a 
few drops. The first pickle will remove the dis- 
colorations due to iron, if present. The muriatic 
acid of the second pickle will darken the color of 
the castings to an extent depending on the 
amount used. 

Tinning Surfaces. Articles of brass or copper 
boiled in a solution of cyanide of potassium 
mixed with turnings or scraps of tin in a few 
moments become covered with a firmly attached 
layer of fine tin. 

A similar effect is produced by boiling the 
articles with tin turnings or scraps and caustic 
alkali, or cream of tartar. In either way, arti- 
cles made of copper or brass may be easily and 
perfectly tinned. 

Protecting Bright Work from Rust. Use a 
mixture of one pound of lard, one ounce of gum 
camphor, melted together, with a little lamp- 
black. A mixture of lard oil and kerosene ill 
equal parts. A mixture of tallow and white lead, 
or of tallow and lime. 

How to Braze. Clean the article thoroughly, 
and better to polish with sand paper. Fasten 
the parts to be brazed firmly together, so they 
will not part when heated in the fire. Place over 
a slow fire of charcoal or well coked coal. Place* 



208 USEFUL KINKS 

on the parts to be brazed a small quantity of 
pulverized borax; as soon as this is done boiling 
and has flowed to all parts, then put on the 
spelter; when the spelter melts it will generally 
run in globules or shot. Jar the piece by gently 
striking with a small piece of wire; this will 
cause the spelter to flow to all parts. 

Lead Explosions. Many mechanics have had 
their patience sorely tried when pouring lead 
around a damp or wet joint, to have it explode, 
blow out or scatter from the effects, of steam 
generated by the heat of the lead. The whole 
trouble may be avoided by putting a piece of 
resin, the size of a man's thumb, into the ladle 
and allowing it to melt before pouring. 

Sharpening Files. To sharpen dull and worn 
out files, lay them in dilute Sulphuric Acid, one 
part acid to two parts of water over night, then 
rinse well in clear water, put the acid in an 
earthenware vessel. 

Soldering Aluminum. When soldering alum- 
inum, it should be borne in mind that upon ex- 
posure to the air a slight film of oxide forms 
over the surface of the aluminum, and after- 
wards protects the metal. The oxide is the same 
color as the metal, so that it cannot easily be 
distinguished. The idea in soldering is to get 
underneath this oxide while the surface is cover- 
ed with the molten solder. Clean off all dirt and 
grease from the surface of the metal with a little 



USEFUL KINKS 209 

benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and 
when the molten solder is covering the surface 
of the metal, scratch through the solder with a 
steel wire scratch-brash. By this means the 
oxide on the surface of -the metal is broken up 
underneath the solder, which containing its own 
flux, takes up the oxide and enables the surface 
of the aluminum to be tinned properly. 

Small surfaces of aluminum can be soldered 
by the use of zinc and Venetian turpentine. 
Place the solder upon the metal together with 
the turpentine and heat very gently with a 
blowpipe until the solder is entirely melted. The 
trouble with this, as with other solders, is that 
it will not flow gently on the metal. Therefore 
large surfaces cannot be easily soldered. 

Another method is to clean the aluminum 
surfaces by scraping, and then cover with a 
layer of paraffine wax as a flux. Then coat the 
surfaces by fusion, with a layer of an alloy of 
zinc, tin and lead, preferably in the following 
proportions; Zinc five parts, tin two parts, lead 
one part. 

The metallic surfaces thus prepared can be 
soldered together either by' means of zinc or 
cadmium, or alloys of aluminum with these 
metals. In fact, any good soldering preparation 
will answer the purpose. 

A good solder for low-grade work is the fol- 
lowing: Tin 95 parts, bismuth five parts. 



210 USEFUL KINKS 

A good flux in all cases is either stearin, 
vaseline, paraffine, copaiva balsam, or benzine. 

In the operation of soldering, small tools made 
of aluminum are used, which facilitate at the 
same time the fusion of the solder and its ad- 
hesion to the previously prepared surfaces. Tools 
made of copper or brass must be strictly avoided 
as they would form colored alloys with the 
aluminum and the solder. 

Aluminum Solder. This consists of 28 pounds 
of block tin, three and one-half pounds of lead, 
seven pounds of spelter, and 14 pounds of phos- 
phor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 
per cent of phosphorus. Clean off all the dirt 
and grease from the surface of the metal with 
benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and 
when the molten solder covers the metal, scratch 
through the solder with a wire scratch brush. 

Sweating Aluminum to Other Metals. First 
coat the aluminum surface to be soldered with a 
layer of zinc. On top of the zinc is melted a 
layer of an alloy of one part aluminum to two 
and one-half parts of zinc. The surfaces are 
placed together and heated until the alloy be- 
tween them is liquefied. 

Soldering Fluid. Take of scrap zinc or pure 
spelter about ^4 pound, and immerse in a half- 
pint of muriatic acid. If the scraps completely 
dissolve add more until the acid ceases to bubble 
and a small piece of metal remains. Let this 



USEFUL KINKS 211 

stand for a day and then carefully pour off the 
clear liquid, or filter it through a cone of blot 
ting paper. Add a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac, 
and when thoroughly dissolved, the solution is 
ready for use. Depending on the materials to 
be soldered, the quantity of sal-ammoniac can 
be reduced. Its presence makes soldering very 
easy, but, unless the parts are well heated so as 
to evaporate the salt, the joints may rust. 

Etching on Iron or Steel. Take one-half ounce 
of nitric acid and one ounce of muriatic acid. 
Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. 
Cover the plac^ you wish to mark with meited 
beeswax, when cold write the inscription plainly 
iin the wax clear to the metal with a sharp in- 
strument, then apply the mixed adds with a 
feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it re- 
main from one to ten minutes, according to the 
appearance desired. Then throw on water, which 
stops the etching process and removes the wax. 

Soldering Solution. An excellent method of 
preparing resin for soldering bright tin is given 
as follows: Take one and one-half pounds of olive 
oil and one and one-half pounds of tallow and 12 
ounces of pulverized resin. Mix these ingredients 
and let them boil up. A\£hen this mixture has be- 
come cool, add one and three-eighths pints of 
water saturated with pulverized sal ammoniac, 
stirring constantly. 

Softening Cast Iron* To soften iron for drill- 



212 USEFUL KINKS 

ing, heat to a cherry-red, having it lie level in the 
fire. Then with tongs, put on a piece of brim- 
stone, a little less in size than the hole is to be. 
This softens the iron entirely through. Let it 
lie in the fire until cooled, when it is ready to drill. 
Suggestions how to Solder. Clean the parts 
thoroughly from all rust, grease or scale, then wet 
with prepared acid. Hold th# soldering copper 
on each part until the article is well tinned and 
the solder has flowed to all parts. 

Watch-Makers ' Oil that Will Never Corrode or 
Thicken. Take a bottle about half full of good 
olive oil and put in thin strips of sheet lead, ex- 
pose it to the sun for a month, then pour off the 
clear oil. The above is a very cheap way of mak- 
ing a first-class oil for any light machinery. 

Varnish for Copper. To protect copper from 
oxidation a varnish may be employed which is 
composed of carbon disulphide 1 part, benzine 1 
part, turpentine oil 1 part, methyl alchol 2 parts 
and hard copal 1 part. It is well to apply several 
coats of it to the copper. 

Glue for Iron. Put an equal amount by weight 
of finely powdered rosin in glue and it will ad- 
here firmly to iron or other metal surfaces. 

Soldering or Tinning Acid. Muriatic Acid 1 
pound, put into it all the zinc it will dissolve and 
1 ounce of Sal Ammoniac, add as much clear 
water as acid, it is then ready for use. 

Plaster of Paris. Common plaster that farmers 



USEFUL KINKS 213 

use to put on land and plaster of paris are the 
same thing, except plaster of paris is common 
plaster calcined. Many times it is difficult to get 
calcined plaster, and when it is procured it is 
badly adulterated with lime and unfit for many 
uses. Ten calcine plaster, or in other words, to 
make common plaster so it will harden, you have 
but to take the plaster and put it in an iron kettle 
and place it over a slow fire, put no water in it. 
In a few moments it will begin to boil and will 
continue to do* so until every particle of moisture 
is evaporated out of it. When it has stopped 
boiling take it off, and, when cold it is ready for 
use. Plaster treated in this way will harden much 
quicker and harder than any which can be 
bought ready prepared. 

Hardening Small Articles. To harden small 
tools or articles that are apt to warp in hard- 
ening, heat very carefully, and insert in a raw 
potato, then draw the temper as usual. 

Bluing Brass. Dissolve one ounce of antimony 
chloride in twenty ounces of water and add three 
ounces of pure hydrochloric acid. Place the 
warmed brass article into this solution until it 
has turned blue. Then wash it and dry in saw- 
dust. 

Drilling Glass. Take an old three-cornered file, 
one that is worn out will do, break it off and 
sharpen to a point like a drill and place in a car- 
penter's brace. Have the glass fastened on a 



214 USEFUL KINKS 

good solid table so there will be no danger of its 
breaking. Wet the glass at the point where the 
hole is to made with the following solution: 

Ammonia 6 Vo drachms 

Ether 3y 2 drachms 

Turpentine 1 ounce 

Keep the drill wet with the above solution and 
bore the hole part way from each side of the 
glass. 

Another solution is to dissolve a piece of gum 
camphor the size of a walnut in one ounce of tur- 
pentine. 

Another method is to use a steel drill hardened, 
but not drawn. Saturate spirits of turpentine 
with camphor and wet the drill. The drill should 
be ground with 3/ long point and plenty of clear- 
ance. Run the drill fast and with a light feed. 
In this manner glass can be drilled with small 
holes, up to 3-16 inch in diameter nearly as rapid- 
ly as cast steel. 

Cement for Pipe Joints. Mix 10 parts iron 
filings and 3 parts chloride! of lime to a paste by 
means of water. Apply to the joint and clamp 
up. It will be solid in 12 hours. 

Removing Stains. To remove Ink Stains, wash 
with pure fresh water, and apply oxalic acid. If 
this changes the stain to a red color, apply am- 
monia, To remove Iron Bust from White Fabrics, 
saturate the spots with lemon juice and salt and 
expose to the sun. 



USEFUL KINKS 215 

Weight of Castings. If you have a pattern 
made of soft pine, put together without nails, an 
iron casting made from it will weigh sixteen 
pounds to every pound of the pattern. If the 
casting is of brass, it will weigh eighteen pounds 
to every pound of the pattern. 

Ordering Taps and Dies. In ordering Taps and 
Dies, be sure and give the kind, exact size and 
thread wanted. Always remember you are writ- 
ing to a person who knows nothing of what is 
wanted, therefore make the order plain and ex- 
plicit. Never order a special Tap or Die if it can 
be avoided, as such will cost at least double that 
of regular sizes and threads. 

Tapping Nuts. Always use good Lard Oil in 
cutting threads with a die or tapping out nuts. 
Poor cheap oil will soon ruin both die and tap. 

Grindstones. Grindstones to grind tools should 
be run at a speed of about 800 feet per minute at 
its periphery, a. 30-inch stone should be run about 
100 revolutions per minute. When used to grind 
carpenters' tools a speed of 600 feet at its peri- 
phery, a 30-inch stone should therefore be run at 
75 revolutions per minute. 

White Metal for Bearings/ White metal for 
bearings consists of 48 pounds of tin, 4 pounds 
of copper, and 1 pound of antimony. The copper 
and tin are melted first, and then the antimony 
is added. 

Marine Glue. One part of pure India rubber 



216 USEFUL KINKS 

dissolved in naphtha. When melted add two 
parts of shellac. Melt until mixed. 

To Soften, Cast Iron. Heat the whole piece to 
a bright glow and gradually cool under a cover- 
dng of fine coal dust. Small objects should be 
packed in quantities, in a crucible in a furnace 
or open fire, under materials which when heated 
to a glow give out carbon to- the iron. They 
should be heated gradually, and kept at a bright 
heat for an hour and allowed to cool slowly. The 
substances recommended to be added are cast- 
iron turnings, sodium carbonate or raw sugar. 
If only raw sugar is used, the quantity should not 
be too small. By this process it is said that cast 
liron may be made so s-oft that it can almost be 
cut with a pocket-knife. 

To Harden Files. To harden files dip the file 
in redhot lead, handle up. This gives a uniform 
heat and prevents warping. Run the file endwise 
back and forth in a pan of salt water. , Set the 
file in a vise and straighten it while still warm. 

Leather Belts. A leather belt is more econo- 
mical in the end than a rubber one. When[ buy- 
ing a leather belt it should be tested by doubling 
it up with the hair side out. If it should crack, 
reject it as it cannot realize the whole amount of 
power it should transmit. If it shows a spongy 
appearance it should be condemned at once, for 
it must be pliable as well as, firm. The grain or 
hair side should be free from wrinkles and the 



USEFUL KINKS 217 

belt should be of uniform thickness, throughout 
its length. It should be tested for quality by im- 
mersing a small strip in strong vinegar. If the 
leather has been properly tanned and is of good 
quality, it will remain in vinegar for weeks with- 
out alteration, excepting it will grow darker in 
color. If the leather has not been properly tanned 
the fiber will swell and the leather will become 
softened, turning it into a jelly-like mass. 

To Cement Rubber to Leather. Koughen both 
surfaces with a sharp piece of glass, apply on both 
a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bi- 
sulphide, and let the solution soak into the mate- 
rial. Then press upon each surface a skin of gutta 
percha about one-hundredth of an inch in thick- 
ness, between a pair of rolls. Unite the twof sur- 
faces in a press that should be warm but not hot. 
In case a press cannot be used, dissolve 30 parts 
of rubber in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the 
vessel being placed on a water bath of a tempera- 
ture of 86 degrees Fahrenheit, Melt ten parts of 
rubber with fifteen parts of rosin and add 35 
parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has 
been completely dissolved, the two liquids may 
be mixed. The resulting cement must be kept 
well corked. 

Drilling Holes in Glass. Holes of any size de- 
sired may be drilled in glass by the following 
method: Get a small 3-cornered file and grind 
the points from one corner and the bias from 



218 USEFUL KINKS 

the other and set the file in a brace, such as is 
used in boring wood. Lay the glass in which 
the holes are to be bored on a smooth surface 
covered with a blanket and begin to bore a hole. 
When a slight impression is made on the 
glass, place a disk of putty around it and fill 
with turpentine to prevent too great heating by 
friction. Continue boring the hole, which will 
be as smooth as one drilled in wood with an 
auger. Do not press too hard on the brace while 
drilling. 

To Polish Brass. Smooth the brass with a fine 
file and run it with smooth fine grain stone, or 
with charcoal and water. When quite smooth 
and free from scratches, polish with pumice stone 
and oil, spirits of turpentine, or alcohol. 

How to Make a Soft Alloy. A soft alloy which 
will adhere tenaciously to metal, glass or porce- 
lain, and can also be used as a solder for articles 
which cannot bear a high degree of heat, is made 
as follows: 

Obtain copper-dust by precipitating copper 
from the sulphate by means of metallic zinc. 
Place from 20 to 36 parts of the copper-dust, ac- 
cording to the hardness desired, in a porcelain- 
lined mortar, and mix well with some sulphuric 
acid of a specific gravity of 1.85. Add to this paste 
70 parts of mercury, stirring constantly, and when 
thoroughly mixed, rinse the amalgam in warm 
water to remove the acid. Let cool from 10 to 



USEFUL KINKS 219 

12 hours, after which time it will be hard enough 
to scratch tin. 

When ready to use it, heat to 707 degrees Fah- 
renheit and knead in an iron mortar till plastic. 
It can then be spread on any surface, and when 
it has cooled and hardened will adhere most ten- 
aciously. 



MEDICAL AID. 

Things to Do in Case of Sprains or Dislocations. 

The most important thing is to secure rest until 
(the arrival of the surgeon. If the sprain is in the 
ankle or foot, place a folded towel around the 
part and cover with a bandage. Apply moist 
heat. The foot should be immersed in a bucket 
of hot water and more hot water added from time 
to time, so that it can be kept as hot as can be 
borne for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which 
a firm bandage should be aplied, by a surgeon, if 
possible, and the foot elevated. 

In sprains of the wrist, a straight piece of wood 
should be used as a splint, cover with cotton or 
wool to make it soft, and lightly bandage, and 
carry the arm in a; sling. In all cases of sprains 
the results may be serious, and a surgeon should 
be obtained as soon a,s possible. After the acute 
symptoms of pain and swelling have subsided, it 
is still necessary that the joint should have com- 
plete rest by the use of a splint and bandage and 
such applications as the surgeon may direct. 

Simple dislocation of the fingers can be put in 
place by strong pulling, aided by a little pressure 
on the part of the bones nearest the joint. 

The best that can be done in most cases is to 

220 



MEDICAL AID 221 

put the part in the position easiest to the sufferer, 
and to apply cold wet cloths, while awaiting the 
arrival of a surgeon. 

To Remove Foreign Substances from the Eye. 
Take hold of the upper lid and turn it up so that 
the inside of the upper lid may be seen. Have the 
patient make several movements with the eye, 
first up, then down, to the right side and to the 
left. Then take a tooth-pick with a little piece 
of absorbent cotton wound around the end and 
moistened in cold! water, and swab it out. , The 
foreign substance will adhere to the swab and 
the object will be removed from the eye without 
any trouble. 

In Case of Cuts. The chief points to be attend- 
ed to are: Arrest the bleeding. Eemove from the 
wound all foreign substances as soon as possible. 
Bring the wounded parts opposite to each other 
and keep them so. This is best done* by means of 
strips of surgeon's plaster, first applied to one 
side of the wound and then secured to the other. 
These strips should not be too broad, and space 
must be left between the strips to allow any mat- 
ter to escape. Wounds too extensive to be held 
together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon, 
who should always be sent for in severe cases. 

Broken Limbs. To get at a broken limb or rib r 
the clothing must be removed, and it is essential 
that this should be done without injury to the 
patient. The simplest plan is to rip up the seams 



222 MEDICAL AID 

of such garments as are in the way. Shoes must 
always be cutj off. It is not imperatively necess- 
ary to do anything to a broken limb before the 
arrival of a doctor, except to keep it perfectly at 
rest. 

Wounds. If a wound be discovered in a part 
covered by the clothing, cut the clothing at the 
seams. Remove only sufficient clothing to un- 
cover and inspect the wound. 

All wounds should be covered and dressed as 
quickly as possible. If a severe bleeding should 
occur, see that this is stopped, if possible, before 
the wound is dressed. 

Treatment of Burns. In treating burns of a 
serious nature, the first thing to be done after the 
fire is extinguished should be to remove the cloth- 
ing. The greatest care must be exercised, as any- 
thing like pulling will bring the skin away. If 
the clothing is not thoroughly wet, be sure to 
saturate it with water or oil before attempting to 
remove it. 

If portions of the clothing will not drop off, 
allow them to remain. Then make a thick solu- 
tion of common baking soda and water, and dip 
soft cloths in it and lay them over the injured 
parts, and bandage them lightly to keep them 
in position. Have the solution near by, and the 
instant any part of a cloth shows signs of dry- 
ness, squeeze some of the solution on thaV part. 
Do not remove the cloth, as total exclusion of the 



MEDICAL AID 223 

air is necessary, and little, if any, pain, will be 
felt as long as the cloths are kept saturated. This 
may be kept up for several days, after which soft 
cloths dipped in oil may be applied, and 1 covered 
with cotton batting. If the feet are cold, apply 
heat and give hot water to drink, and if the bums 
are very serious send for a doctor as soon as pos- 
sible. The presence of pain is a good sign, show- 
ing that vitality is present. 

Bleeding. In case of bleeding, the person may 
become weak and faint, unless the blood is flow- 
ing actively. This is not a serious sign, and the 
quiet condition of the faint often assists nature in 
stopping the bleeding, by allowing the blood to 
clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel. 

Unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is 
jlosing much blood, it is better not to relieve the 
faint condition. When in this state excitement 
should be avoided, and external warmth should 
be applied, the person covered with blankets, and 
bottles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the 
feet and arm-pits. 

Watch carefully if unconscious. 

If vomiting occurs, turn the patient's body on 
one side, with the head low, so that the matters 
vomited may not go into the lungs. 

Bleeding is of three kinds: From the arteries 
which lead from the heart. That which conies 
from the veins which take the blood] back to the 
heart. That from the small veins which carry 



224 MEDICAL AID 

the blood to the surface of the body. In the first, 
the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though 
it were being primped. In the second, the blood 
is dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted 
stream. In the third, the blood oozes out. In 
some wounds all three kinds of bleeding occur at 
the same time. 

Carrying an Injured Person. In case of an in- 
jury where walking is impossible, and lying down 
is not absolutely necessary, the injured person 
may be seated in a chair, and carried, or he may 
sit upon a board, the ends of which are carried 
by two men, around whose necks they should 
place his arms so as to steady himself. 

Where an injured person can walk he will get 
much help by putting his arms over the shoulders 
and round the 1 necks of two others. 



TABLES 



225 





a 
.2 

hi 

CD 

a 

a 

•+3 

QQ 
O 

H 


Nominal 

Weight 

per 

Foot. 


CO 

O 

Ah 


OlOO?OHCOU5^CO«0 00 b» 1> 00 

OSrHT+JCOOSTHt>-OCOOSC<JCOTiHr-llO 

H H H H (M* C^' CO CO CO ^' tJH lO ^ N 


H 

B 

H 
rt 

H 
hi 

l-H 

o 

« 

o 

« 

hH 

o 
o 

« 

w 

O 

o 
hi 

H 
CQ 

fl 

H 
fi 
hi 

H 


li 

O 0) 

h3 


"3 « 


49 

ft 


cqcocooo ^ti tm os co <m ao t+i cq <m 

COIO^O^HIONONCONGO(MOH 
^^COT^T-jQOCOLOCOC^T-IOOOSaO 
^ CO ^' (?q d H H H H H H H H 


c3 a3 

W02 


a> 

CD 
ft 


oscoi>coosooccoscoiOiHaoioosT</i 

HlO^OOOOiCNlOONNaiHLO^CO 
COOiOHOi^iOW(MHOOOiOON 

CO CO N d H H H H H H H H 


QQ 

e« 
CO 

83 

s-l 

CP 

> 

02 

a 

«S 

u 


C3 

3 


a? 


co os tjh os co os io * os t^ co co 

H^O^aiCD^HOOiCONCOCqcOlO 

e>qcqcoTfiLOcoaoososi-Hcqcocoaoc\i 

" iH rH rH rH rH (M* 


"3 

e 

CD 

a 


q 

M 

d< 


lOHQOHCOCO »OC5CONcOOi^05 
NCOOiHNCOOJCONH^NCO^N 

iqoJcooiiocooooHco^OJOco 

"rHrH©ic6^l05dl>odaiOTjH|>r 
rH rH tH 


o 

43 

H 


a 

I— i 

d< 
m 


lO N N lO (N «D Oi OS CO tH LO CO rfi LO 
XOq^OO^NO^COOiiM^COOCO 
N(MN^HOi05050(M?OOlOOO^ 

'rHrH^COCO^iOt^COOJTHC^LOOi 
tH tH iH tH 




o 

a 

o 
O 


*3 

S 

s 

5 


QQ 

s 

O 
P 
M 


OSLOrHr-ICOOlOSTfl CO H N T^ lO 00 

oot^OiOoot^cDio^io^c<icvja5t^ 

CO^Ha5^^HOiN^C<lON(MN 

04 CO ^' ^' lO d N N CO Oi* 6 H H CO* ^' 
iH r-i tH tH rH 


3 
a 

H 


02 

O 


NNcq^coos^oiio cohconco 

^(MHGiCOCOlOCO(MHOiOOCOCOO 
H OS N ^ CQ O X CO ^ (N OS N lO H N 

CO CO tJH lO CO N N CO OS 6 6 H o4 ^ LO 
rH tH rH tH tH tH 


2 
5 


bo 


6 
ft 


COCOCOCOCOC001C<ICn|HHHOOOS 
iHr-lrHi-liHiHr-lr-liHTHiHTHTHrH 


"3 

a 

I- 

(j 


03 
02 

i a 

* a 
a 

3 


02 

Q 

A 

O 



lO lO lO »0 »iMO OS OS OS Tfi^OO 
OSOSOSOSOSOSOOOCqC^C<ICOCOTfi 
OOOOOOrHrHrHrHTHrHr- IHH 


i 

5 


3 

s 

0) 

a 


02 


O 

a 


coco^ oqcqcM OIOI* 

lOOCOCOHCOOOCOOOHCOHCOCOO 
COHCOlOCOOCqiONOCSllONCqN 

"rHrHrHrHC^C^ c4c4co"co"co"co"'*^ 


"3 
a 

M 

M 

w 


QQ 

a> 

1 


V*\ffl\* \A«\* \*\«\* \N 
H\H\«\ H\H\eo\ H\H\W\ H\ 

t-4 th h.h oqcMc^cqcocococoTt<^i4 



226 



TABLES 



m 
S 

fi 

« 
EH 

CO 

c3 

O 
Eh 

a 

p 
o 
« 


on 

O 

• l-H 

CO 

a 

a 

S 

o3 

a 

0Q 

*!-t 

o 
H 


•A\.9iog jo qoui 
I3d sp^aiqx jo jaqnm^ 


NOOX^^HHHHOOOO 
<MrHrHrHTHTHTHrHrH 


•^oo^i J8d 
^qSpAi IB anno tf 


o 


CqTtHlC00rHCOC<JCOCOl>.lO 

' H h cq N CO lO N 


•^ooj 
oiqiiQ aao SaraiBq. 
-a'oo adi<i jo q 4 5aai 




m co th 
^cooq^ ^ o* <m co o> th lq 

CO CO H (M* 6 CO d 6 w d oi 

THCOUtJt^t^COOit^TjHCOrH 
l& CO t^ "tf <M r-i 


Length of 

Pipe per 

Square Foot 

of 


•aoBjmg 


4a 

a> 
a) 
En 


lOkOXHOONlO 
ICOiCOCOCO^COt^Tfi^Tti 
rHT+Ht>.THCO<^l>.CO00LOC<j 

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tH rH 


•ao^jjng 
IBnia^xa 


43 

a> 

4) 


LOt^t^l>»^TH 00COH 
^NlO^COOOHOOlOi 
^OCOlOCOOiCOOCOCOO 

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w 

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03 
ki 

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TO9H 


a 
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" rH rH CM* 


•IBuiaijai 


q 

i— i 


COHNCOCOCO 
t^^rHTflCOCqcOGOCO^OO 

lOOOiOCOCOOJCOlOCOOO 
OHHCOlOOOiiOCONCO 

' H ci CO ^' N 


•I^aia^xa 


a 
w 


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a 


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•[Baie^xa 


02 

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NOi(MCOOiCOHCOCOCOOi 
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THTHCqcqco'-^lOlOt^oSo 

l-H 


•ssau^oxqj, iBuimo^; 


O 

a 


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COCOOiOHCO^\HkCOH 
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1 

a 


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IBaia^ifi 

-ixojddy 


a> 

O 
P 
1—4 


Tt< ^ CO ^ 00 HNOON 

NC0 05(MCq^CCHCOCOCO 

cq co ^ co oo o co co o ^ o 

* H H H oq oq CO 




GO 

09 

.a 

o 
a 


lO io i& io *o 

O^N^WHCO t^l> 
^lOCOCOOCOCOOiCOCOiO 

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[Baiinox 


o 
t— < * 


\o8 V* \eo \cs V* V* \e* \« 

H\ H\ ce\ H\ »\ H\ H\ H\ 

HHHoqcqco 



TABLES 



227 



a 

e 

« 

W 
En 

CO 

W 

CQ 

k1 

N 
H 
En 
QQ 

ft 

o 

« 

En 

p 
o 


02 

o 

QQ 

d 

s 

s 

03 

a 

QQ 

o 

3 

H 


•Aiaiog jo qoni 
I8d sp^ajqx jo laqamft 


oooogooooooooogoqoqooo 


•^ootf i8d 


03 

tj 
a 
3 




rHLO (M(MHNHlOCOlO 
O^05OC0NNO^(M00 
O <D tJH IO l> G<J rH !>. O O OS 

aio^^oocoodcooiood 

HHHH(M(MCO'*^^ 


^OOtf 

oiqno aao Sqiuib; 
-abo 8dic[ jo q^Saai 


to 


t^ rH C3 00 (M 00 Oi (M H N 

10 co cq os n 00 n 00 10 w 

TfHrHC^I^TtHCOCvicQTHrHTH 
rH j-\ 


Length of 

Pipe per 

Square Foot 

of 


•80«jjng 
IBaja^ui 




a> 


t^O^COt^ t+h 00 t^ C<1 t^ OS 
NTt<^lOCO^N(M00^H 
OOSOOI><X>lO^^COCOCO 
rH 


•aoBjins 
lBUJ9;xa 


ft 


lOOSr}HNNHCONiOiOOS 

lo^cooot^o^osiocqas 
asaoi>»<£>io*o^cocococq 


m 
c3 

0J 

u 

< 
1 

f-t 
03 

a 

03 

En 


IWH 


a 

02 


OS "^ ^ <D "^ <£> CO TfH rH OS 

NNNHCO<MOOCOCqON 
«OH?OCOIOOSCOOOSt}<10 

(^C0C0^l0^)CX5OrHC0TjH 
t-\ r-4 r-{ r* 


•IBOJ8!jni 


a 


t^ y-i 00 00 OS CO 00 

aococoasooco^cococoos 

CONOSOSOONONCOOO 

as^ioos'ao'oo'ocqao'ioco 

HHHCNCOIO^ONOSH 
rH 


•IBiua^xa: 


a 
1— 1 

a 1 

GO 


CO^lOCO(M^CO CO rf< l>~ 
^OCOONCOWOCOCON 

irsascoco^co^t^t^^co 
oq 10 as rtn tjh lo 00" ©q* 06 t^ 

HHH(MCO^lONOSOCi 
rH rH 


o5 

a 

1 

i 




•l^uia^ai 


03 


a 


coaooqasTticococoi^oo 

H^HOOOOOO^ION 

rHo4^»OO5c4lO06rHT}Hl> 

HHHHH(MCS|(MCOCOCO 


•IBuae^xa 


QQ 

O 

a 


cot^oot^coio^oooq^Hio 

CDCOONHIOOSCONHIO 

iOrHi>.TtHooasoc^i>-aso 

C^TtHlOt^OCOt^OCOCOO 

HHHHOq(MOqCOCOCO^ 


•SS^lLJlOiqX IBUIUIOK 


X3 


a 


COl^COOS r-H ©q tH CD 
(M CO ^ IO CO O (M Tji CO 

©q©q©q©q©qcocococo 


i 

a 

93 
S 


•J8^3UIBia 
IBUI^UI 

-ixojddy 


03 


a 


aocoooioiocooqi^os 

^(NO^^OCMCOCOH 

looioqqoojoso 

CO^TjHlOCOI>t>00*CSrHCq 
rH rH rH 


•IBUia^xa; 
l«n;ov 


QQ 

A 
O 

a 


CO LO 10 »o 10 
cooqcMoqtMioioio 

lO lOCOCOCOCONNN 

th ^ id »o «o* n 06 os* d h oq 

rH rH rH 


re anno tf 



a 
*-< 


COTfl^lO^^OOOSOrHCSI 
rH rH rH 



228 



TABLES. 



H 

Ph 
i— i 

s 

o 
« 

H 

X 

O 
« 
)— l 

Eh 
W 

O 
P 

o 


a 
.2 

CD 

a 

S 

*h 
c3 

fl 

m 
"o 

3 
H 


mSiaAl I^UIUIO^ 


oa 

P 
o 


O ^H tH Oa Oa *> CO CM ?> 1© J> t- ^ GO 

«Oi>OWH CD O «> « ^ Oi io io 

* t-I t-I CM* CO* CO id *>* © CM* ^ ©' CO 
tH t-H tH CM CM 


u 
o 
p-t^ 

0)° 

£° 

Ph o 

^^ 

"Sp 
p o- 






CQO 0©OCO*X)100500?> CO^ 
CC X ?> ^ O H O lO i- ^ CQ CO OiO 

OC4OOhOO10 05©0ItH i> O 

CO CM* ©' i> id ^H CO* CM* t-I tH iH t-i iH 

1-H tH 




<D 
CD 


CO IO J> £- 1> t^ tH CO CO H »C Oi ?> J> 

COt>-»O^COOOHO(flC510^00iL' 
tH O CO 1© CO Oa CO O CD CO © © GO © W 

oa l> id ^* co cm* cm* cm th t-I th 


BO 

s5 

< 

CD 

CO 
h 

> 

a 

Pi 


•ls;8H 


P* 


COT-iOaCO^HCOCOCMJOCOCM 1© 1© 

00Oh«h^C3C00JXJ0HO«O 
OH«CO^©000^«Oi>^HJO 

* t-I th cm co co ^ co co' 


•pjujaixsi 


p 

p 
& 


co co oa tH cm T-i co i© oa oa co oa co i> 
co co co co jo h t- i© co o co 10 ^h oa CO 
O © T-f CM ^ £- CM i> oa CM to CO tH th oa 

t-I t-I CM ^*" CO CO* r-i co id 

tH tH CM 


oaoaco^coco^io cMthcot^cocm 

CMCMiOiOCOiOCOCOCOOacMCOOOi> 

T-icMcoiococoTHoo^^ticOiOOaco^ 

" th CM CM ^ CO* Oa' CM id ^H tH 

tH tH CM CO 


s 

p 

J-l 

I 
'5 


•[Baia^ui 


03 

CD 
£1 

O 
P 


^^COCOCMCOCO^COCOiOOaiOQ^ 
HHcMCMOT-HGOOaOat-L-GO^oacMcp 

co oa co t- co oa oa co o cm O io oa th co 
' t-I t-I CM CM* CO* rjl co" i> oa* O* t-I id co' 

tH tH tH t-I 


*lBaj8^x3 


co 
CD 
Xi 

o 


c^cp-r-ioaoaTHi©oaT--icMcocoJ>?>co 
i-oacMcooacOT-Hcococooacocoj>TH 

CMCOTHCOCMrHCMOa^OOlOTH-r^GO 

t-I t-I CM* CM CO* Tt" id id t> oa' O* CM* tH i> o 

tH tH tH tH CM 


d*\M 




d 


X ^ X ^ 08 

CMT-iOOaGOt-COCOlOCMT-iOOOO 

T-I 1—1 T— 1 


•ssatnpiqx 


X 

0) 

O 

P 


co i> oa ?> cm ^ co T-i ^hhicn 

CM CM ^ lO CO Ca O CM CO O CM H^ t- CO 

tHt-It-HtHt-It-Ht-ICMCMCMCOCOCOCO^ 


- S-4 

CD 
CD 

a 

03 

5 


•J8^aUIBIQ 

IBUja^iii 
-ixoiddy 


02 

<v 
A 

o 

p 


lO^tHcMCOtHCM-^COiOCMGOCOCO 
OOacM^coiOt-oacOT-HOaiCT-iT-iio 
CM CM ^ 1C L- oa CM Tf oa CO CO CO CO CO J> 

' t-I t-I t-I cM CM* CO co' Tjl iO 


•[Baa8;xa 


CO 


»o lO io lO lO CO io 
O^^^iOHCO t- i> CO CM 

^ococoococooacocoio ^ioioco 

' t-I th t-I t-I CM CM CO* ^* ^t* id CO 


•l^aja^ai 


p 


tH rH t-i CM CM CO CO ^f IO CO 



TABLES 



229 



o 

O 

« • 

m 

t 

n 

pq 
P 
o 
Q 

H 

W 

CQ 

fe 

o 

M 
H 

w 
o 
t> 
o 
« 


a 

.2 

d 

a 
S 

o3 

a 

OQ 
*t-i 
O 

H 




^ l^aiuiojst 


CO 

a 
p 

o 


^ t£ LO cq GO CO LO 00 Cq rH 

N^CO(M^OCOlONrt<HH 

rHCMCOldcdaJcOOOG^t^OOCO 
rH tH Oq <M CO lO 


^ mi 

0) 

P.HH 

S o 
°o 

fctf)3 
P o 1 

H 


•ao'Bj.mg 


3 
a> 
ft 


NOiOONHHCOCqcONO^ 
CO^OHHCONNOH^OO 
^OlOCO»OlOH<X)^c<iOiN 

W5 OS d ^' CO W W H H H 


•aoBjjng 


"8 


t^ i>- th ^ aoco^Hioo^t^t^ 

^COOOHOfMOllO^OON 
lO^OiCOO^COOOiOO^lO 
TJH CO C<J C4 o4 rH rH rH 


CO 

03 

<D 

H 

0) 
OQ 
Fh 
0) 

fr- 
ee 

a 
Eh 


•m^w 


a* 
w 


t^-t^t^GiLOCOCO-HHCq CO 

O(MG0^O00N(MNXTfO 
lONOlOOi<^OlONHCOOO 

H H H Cq ^' lO ^D 00 H lO 
rH rH 


'{TBUlQ^Ul 


a 
i— i 



m 


t^ OS rH LO tH O* t^ tH T* LO CO 

^C0NHCO^HOiO5C<JCOCO 
OHOlQOiN^ONNOi^) 

" rH c4 Th id 1> oJ 00 

i-^ rH 


•[Bnj8;xa 


tH CO 00 "HjH LO Cq rH CO T* CO CM 
LOCOLOCOCOCOOiOqcO©©!^ 
LOOOCOrHOO^^COLOCfrCO''^ 

* rA c4 cq* tjh co* © cq lo ^* ^t* 

rH rH Cq CO 


6 
o 
a 

<v 



1 

5 
O 


'IBaia^ai 


CO 

0) 

O 

a 


COCOTtH OOTHCOlOCOGvJrfLO 

COC^^OOHGOHNCOIOCDH 
r>COXN^COlOHlOOONCO 

"rHrHoqco^LOt^Goaioqio 

t-4 1— 1 


'tBaj8!jxa 


CO 

O 

q 


OJOiHlOOiHC<|COCDNNCO 
COCiCOHCOCOCOOiCDCONH 
CONH(MOi^005lOH^OO 

(N CO ^ lO id N OS O (N "^ N d 
HHHHCq 


d*\M 




6 


o o 1 1 X | 

rH rH © © O O r-«\ w\ -H»\ i>>\ 




CO 

A 

O 

a 


ao^^aococq©oocqcq LO 

C5rH©00©^CO©^r)00LOt^ 

C] CO CO W ^ ^ lO CO CD «? N 00 


a 

3 

5 


•la^inBia 
IBa-i^ui 

-ixoiddy 


CO 

A 

o 
a 
w 


Tt^cqi>.iooorHid^co©coio 

H^(M000000O5lO00HC0CON 
(M tH-IO 00©THt^Oqt>rH©00 

" rH rH rH c4 c4 CO Tt" ^ 


•IBaja^xg: 


CO 

o 
a 


LO LO LO CO LO 
THLOrHCO t^t^ COC<l 

00©CO©©CO00LO loloco 
* tH rH rH rH Cq" Cq* CO ^ t*H LO CO 


•I^aia^ni 


a 

a 


h\»\ h\h\ h\ h\ 

rHrHrHCqoqCOCO^LO© 



230 



TABLES 



Table Giving Velocity of Flow of Water 

In Feet per Minute, Through Pipes of Various Sizes, for 

Varying Quantities of Flow. 



Gallons 
per Minute. 


inch.! 1 mch ' inch. 


1 1-2 
inch. 


2 inch. 


2 1-2 
inch. 


3 inch. 4 inch. 


5 


218 122i 


781 


541 


301 


m 


13% 


7-3 


10 


436 245 


157 


109 


61 


38 


27 


15% 


15 


653 367^ 235i 


163^ 


911 


581 


40% 


23 


20 


872 490 314 


218 


122 


78 


54 


30% 


25 


1090 612^ 3924r 


272J 


1521 


971 


67% 


38% 


30 




735 


451 


327 


183 


117 


81 


46 


35 




857* 


549i 


38H 


2131 


136^ 


94% 


53% 


40 




980 


628 


436 


244 


156 


108 


61% 


45 




1102| 


706^ 


490^- 


274i 


175^ 


121% 


69 


50 






785 


545 305 


195 


135 


76% 


75 






1177* 


817i 457J 


2921 


202% 


115 


100 








1090 


610 


380 


270 


153% 


125 










7621 


487£ 


337% 


191% 


150 










915 


585 


405 


230 


175 






1067^- 


682± 


472% 


268% 


200 




1 


1220 


780 


540 


306% 



Table Giving Loss or Pressure 

Due to Friction, in Pounds, per Square Inch, for Pipe 

100 Feet Long. 



Gallons 
Discharged 

per Minute. 



5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

80 

35 

40 

45 

50 

75 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 



3-4 
inch. 



linen. 



1 1-4 
inch. 



1 1-2 
inch. 



2 inch. 



2 1-2 
inch. 



3.3 
13.0 
28.7 
50.4 
78.0 



0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
19.0 
27.5 
37.0 
48.0 



0.31 
1.05 
2.38 ; 
4.07 
6.40 
9.15 

12.4 

16.1 

20.2 

24.9 

56.1 



0.12 
0.47, 
0.97; 
1.66 
2.62' 
3.75 
5.05 
6.52 
8.15 

10.0 

22.4 

39.0 



0.12 
0.27 
0.42 
0.67 
0.91 
1.26 
1.60 
2.01 
2.44 
5.32 
9.46 
14.9 
21.2 
28.1 
37.5 



0.06 
0.13 
0.21 
0.30 
0.42 
0.51 
0.62 
0.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 

9.46 

12.47 



3 inch. 



0.03 
0.10 
0.12 
0.14 
0.17 
0.27 
0.35 
0.74 
1.31 
1.99 
2.88 
3.85 
5.02 



4 inch. 



0.03 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.09 
0.21 
0.33 
0.51 
0.69 
0.95 
1.22 



TABLES 



231 



Tensile S 


TREXGTH 


of Bolts. 


Diameter 

of Bolt 
in Inches. 


Area at 
Bottom 

of 
Thread. 


At 7, 000 lbs. 

per square 

inch. 


At 10,000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


At 12,000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


At 15.000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


000 
lbs. per 
square 
inch. 


X 


.125 


875 


1,250 


1,500 \ 1,875 


2.500 


x 


.196 


1,372 


1,960 


2,350 2,940 


3,920 


x 


.3 


2,100 


3,000 


3,600 4,500 


6,000 


X 


.42 


2,940 


4,200 


5,040 6,300 


8,400 


l 


.55 


3,850 


5,500 


6,600 8,250 


11,000 


lX 


.69 


4,830 


6,900 


8,280 10,350 


13,800 


IX 


.78 


5,460 


7,800 


9,300 


11,700 


15,600 


IX 


1.06 


7,420 


10,600 


12,720 


15,900 


2L200 


IX 


1.28 


8,960 


12,800 


15,360 


19,200 


25,600 


IX 


1.53 


10,710 


15,300 


18,360 


22,950 


30,600 


IX 


1.76 


12,320 


17,600 


21,120 


26,400 


35,200 


IX 


2.03 


14,210 


20,300 


24,360 


30,450 


40,600 


2 


2.3 


16,100 


23,000 


27,600 


34,500 


46,000 


2X 


3.12 


21,840 


31,200 


37,440 


46,800 


62,400 


2X 


3.7 


25,900 


37,000 


44,400 


55,500 


74,000 



The breaking strength of good American bolt iron is usually- 
taken at 50,000 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 
15 per cent before breaking. It should not set under a strain 
of less than 25,000 pounds. The proof strain is 20,000 pounds 
per square inch, and beyond this amount iron should never 
be strained in practice. 



232 



TABLES 



Table of the Pa 


>FSBTD 


- :? Saturated Steam. 


tanee 
pree- 
■nrein 

lbs. per 
sq. in. 


■tare in 

F. 


Total 
heat 
•. — - 
:t:~ 
vita it 


Heat 
units in 

1: • no i 

from 32° 

F. 


Heat of 
vaporiza- 
tion in 
heat 
units. 


Denrftj 

of weight 

of leu. ft. 

in lbs. 


of 1 lb. in 
cubic feet 


Weight 

of 1 cu. 

ft. of 

water. 





212. 


15:. 5 


965.8 


0.03760 


2o.o'» 


59.76 












[ 




59.64 


10 


239.36 


1154.9 


900 4 


946.5 


0.06128 


16.32 


59.04 


oo 




1160,8 


227.9 


932.9 


0.08490 




68.60 


30 




116.5.5 


243.2 


922.3 


0.1070 


9.347 


- 


40 




1169.3 


255.9 


913.4 


0.1292 


7.736 


57. 69 


50 


297.46 


1172.6 


966 9 


905.7 


0.1512 


6.612 


57.32 


55 


302.42 


11742 


271.9 


902.3 


0.1621 


6.169 


57.22 


60 


307.10 


1175.6 


276.6 




0.1729 






65 


311.54 


1176.9 


881 1 






5.443 


56.95 


V 


315 77 


UTB 2 




592. 7 


0.1945 


5.142 


56.82 




319. SO 


1179.5 




B80.8 


8082 




56.69 


BO 


323.66 


1180.6 






0.2159 


4633 


56.59 


85 


327.36 


1181.8 




554 2 




4.415 


56.47 


90 


330.92 




301.5 


551.5 


0.2371 


4218 


56.36 


95 


334.35 


ll« ■ 


305.0 




M77 


i.037 


56.25 


100 


337.66 


11S4.9 








3.572 


56.18 


105 


341 9f 


11S5.9 


311.8 


5741 


-.2659 


3.720 


56.07 


110 


343.9.5 


1186.8 


315.0 


Wl - 




3.580 


55.97 


115 


346.94 






869.6 




3.452 


n 


120 


349.55 


1155.6 


321.2 


867.4 


0.3003 


3.330 


55.77 


125 


352. &3 


1189.5 


3242 


56-5.3 


0.3107 


3.219 


55.69 


130 


•3.5.5.43 


1190.3 




Boai 


0.3212 


3.113 


55.58 


135 


&58.10 


1191.1 




561.3 


0.3315 


3.017 


5 5 


140 


360.70 


1191.9 


332.5 


559.4 


0.3420 


2.924 


.55.44 


145 


363.25 


1192.8 


335.2 




0.3524 


2.838 


55.36 


150 


36.5.73 


1193.5 






0.3629 


2.756 


.55.29 


1.55 




11943 


340.3 




0.3731 


a. 681 


00. 22 


160 


370.51 


1195.0 


342.8 


5.52.1 




2.605 


55.15 


165 




1195.7 


345.2 


8.50.4 


0.8939 


2.-539 


55.07 


170 


375.09 


1196.3 


347 6 




0.4043 


2.474 


.54.99 


175 


377.31 


1197.0 


&±9.9 


847.1 


0.4147 


2.412 


5493 


180 


379. 48 


1197.7 


38212 


845.4 


0.42-51 


2.353 






881.00 




3.544 


843.9 


0.43.53 


2.297 


54 79 


190 




1199.0 


356.6 




0.4455 


2.344 


•54 73 


195 




1199.6 


388.8 


54".'. 5 


0.4559 


2.193 


5466 


MO 


387.71 




MHO 


B80 2 


0.4663 


2.145 


5460 




397.36 




370.9 




0.5179 


1.930 


- 


250 


406.07 




380 1 




0.5699 


1.755 


54.03 




414.22 


1208.3 


388.5 




0.621 


1.609 




300 


421.83 


1210.6 


396.5 


814.1 


0.674 




53.54 



TABLES 



233 





Chimneys. 




■ 

a 


HEIGHTS IN FEET. 


Area 


JS 




Square 
Feet. 


o 

s 


75 


80 


85 90 


95 100 110 


120 


130 


140 


150 175 


900 






03 

5 


COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWER. 


3.14 


24 


75 


78 81 






















3.69 


26 


90 


921 95 


98 




















428 


28 




106110 


114 


1171120 
















4.91 


30 




122 127 


130 


133 137 
















5.59 


32 






144 


149 


152 156 


164 














6.31 


34 






162 


16S 


171 176 


185 














7.07 


36 








188 


192 19S 20S 


215 












8.73 


40 










237 244 257 


267 


279 










10.56 


44 










3ffi ,,m3 310 322 


337 










12.57 


48 












352 370 


384 400 


413 








15.90 


54 












445 46S 


4^4 507 


526 








19.63 


60 














577 


600 627 


650 


672 






23.76 


66 














697 


725 758 


784 


815 






28.27 


72 
















862 902 


931 


969 


1044 




38.48 


84 
















1173 1229 


1270 


1319 


1422 




50.27 


96 














|1584 


1660 


1725 


1859 1983 


63.62 


108 














205£ 


2102 


21S1 


2352 2511 


78.54 


120 


















2596 


2693 


2904.3100 

1 



Reduction of Chimney Draft by Long Flues. 



Total Length of 
Flues, in feet. 



Okimney Draft, in 
per cent. 



50 



100 



100 



93 



200 



79 



400 



66 



600 



58 



8001000 



52 



4S 



2000 



35 



234 






TABLES 














Ajrea of Circles. 




1 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


X 


0.0123 


10 


78.54 


30 


706.86 


65 


3318.3 


% 


0.0491 


io# 


86.59 


31 


754.76 


66 


3421.2 


X 


0.1104 


11 


95.03 


32 


804.24 


67 


3525.6 


% 


0.1963 


n# 


103.86 


33 


855.30 


68 


3631.6 


X 


0.3068 


12 


113.09 


34 


907.92 


69 


3739.2 


H 


0.4418 


12tf 


122.71 


35 


962.11 


70 


3848.4 


n 


0.6013 


13 


132.73 


36 


1017.8 


71 


3959.2 


i 


0.7854 


18tf 


143.13 


37 


1075.2 


72 


4071.5 


ix 


0.9940 


14 


153.93 


38 


1134.1 


73 


4185.4 


IX 


1.227 


uy 2 


165.13 


39 


1194.5 


74 


4300.8 


IX 


1.484 


15 


176.71 


40 


1256.6 


75 


4417.8 


1/2 


1.767 


15# 


188.69 


41 


1320.2 


76 


4536 4 


w 


2.073 


16 


201.06 


42 


1385.4 


77 


4656.6 


IX 


2.405 


16^ 


213.82 


43 


1452.2 


78 


4778.3 


m 


2.761 


17 


226.98 


44 


1520.5- 


79 


4901.6 


2 


3.141 


17# 


240.52 


45 


1590.4 


80 


5026.5 


2X 


3.976 


18 


254.46 


46 


1661.9 


81 


5153.0 


*/z 


4.908 


isy 2 


268.80 


47 


1734.9 


82 


5281.0 


%X 


5.939 


19 


283.52 


48 


1809.5 


83 


5410.6 


3 


7.068 


19^ 


298.64 


49 


1885.7 


84 


5541.7 


3X 


8.295 


20 


314.16 


50 


1963.5 


85 


5674.5 


S'A 


9.621 


20K 


330.06 


51 


2042.8 


86 


5808.8 


ZU 


11.044 


21 


346.36 


52 


2123.7 


87 


5944.6 


4 


12.566 


21 ^ 


363.05 


53 


2206.1 


88 


6082.1 


4^ 


15.904 


22 


380.13 


54 


2290.2 


89 


6221.1 


5 


19.635 


22^ 


397.60 


55 


2375.8 


90 


6361.7 i 


5# 


23.758 


23 


415.47 


56 


2463.0 


91 


6503.9 


6 


28.274 


23^ 


433.73 


57 


2551.7 


92 


6647.6 


&X 


33.183 


24 


452.39 


58 


2642.0 


93 


6792.9 


7 


38.484 


24^ 


471.43 


59 


2733.9 


94 


6939.8 


7J£ 


44.178 


25 


490.87 


60 


2827.4 


95 


7088.2 


8 


50.265 


26 


530.93 


61 


2922.4 


96 


7238.2 


8# 


56.745 


27 ■ 


572.55 


62 


3019.0 


97 


7389.8 


9 


63.617 


28 


615.75 


63 


3117.2 


98 


7542.9 


9^ 


70.882 


29 


660.52 


64 


.3216.9 


99 


7697.7 



To compute the area of a diameter greater than any in the 
above table: 

Rule. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, 
until it is reduced to a quotient to be found in the tatle, 
then multiply the tabular area of the quotient by the square 
of the factor. The product will be the area required. 

Example. — What is area of diameter of 150? 150 -*• S 3 * 30. 
Tabular area of 30 = 706.86 which X 25 = 17,671.5 area required. 









TABLES 






23* 


Circumference of Circles, 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


X 


.3927 


10 


31.41 


30 


94.24 


65 


204.2 


X 


.7854 


io# 


32.98 


31 


97.38 


66 


207.3 


X 


1.178 


11 


34.55 


32 


100.5 


67 


210.4 


% 


1.570 


11* 


36.12 


33 


103.6 


68 


213.6 


u 


1.963 


12 


37.69 


34 


106.8 


69 


216.7 


u 


2.356 


12* 


39.27 


35 


109.9 


70 


219.9 


X 


2.748 


13 


40.84 


36 


113.0 


71 


223.0 


1 


3.141 


13* 


42.41 


37 


116.2 


72 


226.1 


w 


3.534 


14 


43.98 


38 


119.3 


73 


229.3 


IX 


3.927 


14* 


45.55 


39 


122.5 


74 


232.4 


w 


4.319 


15 


47.12 


40 


125.6 


75 


235.6 


IX 


4.712 


15* 


48.69 


41 


128.8 


76 


238.7 


IX 


5.105 


16 


50.26 


42 


131.9 


77 


241.9 


1% 


5.497 


16* 


51.83 


43 


135.0 


78 


245.0 


1% 


5.890 


17 


53.40 


44 


138.2 


79 


248.1 


2 


6.283 


17* 


54.97 


45 


141.3 


80 


251.3 


2)4 


7.068 


18 


56.54 


46 


144.5 


81 


254.4 


2% 


7.854 


18* 


58.11 


47 


147.6 


82 


257.6 


2# 


8.639 


19 


59.69 


48 


150.7 


83 


260.7 


3 


9.424 


19* 


61.26 


49 


153.9 


84 


263.8 


3# 


10.21 


20 


62.83 


50 


157.0 


85 


267.0 


»X 


10.99 


20* 


64.40 


51 


160.2 


86 


270.1 


8# 


11.78 


21 


65.97 


52 


163.3 


87 


273.3 


4 


12.56 


21* 


67.54 


53 


166.5 


88 


276.4 


4^ 


14.13 


22 


69.11 


54 


169.6 


89 


279.6 


5 


15.70 


22* 


70.68 


55 


172.7 


90 


282.7 


5X 


17.27 


23 


72.25 


56 


175.9 


91 


285.8 


8 


18.84 


23* 


73.82 


57 


179.0 


92 


289.0 


6>£ 


20.42 


24 


75.39 


58 


182.2 


93 


292.1 


T 


21.99 


24* 


76.96 


59 


185.3 


94 


295.3 


?K 


23.56 


25 


78.54 


60 


188.4 


95 


298.4 


8 


25.13 


26 


81.68 


61 


191.6 


96 


301.5 


2* 


26.70 


27 


84.82 


62 


194.7 


97 


304.7 


28.27 


28 


87.96 


63 


197.9 


98 


307.8 


•*- 


29.84 


29 


91.10 


64 


201.0 


99 


311.0 



To compute the circumference of a- diameter greater than 
any in the above table: 

Rule. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, 
until it is reduced to a diameter to be found in table. Take 
the tabular circumference of this diameter, multiply it by 2, 
3, 4, etc., according as it was divided, and the product will be 
the circumference required. 

Example.— What is the circumference of a diameter of 125? 
125 -*• 5 = 25. Tabular circumference of 25 = 78.54, 78.54 X 
6 =» 392.7, circumference required. 



236 



TABLES 



Properties of Metals. 




Melting Point. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Foot. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Inch. 


Tensile 

Strength in 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


Aluminum 


1140 


166.5 


.0963 


15000-30000 


Antimony- 


810-1000 


421.6 


.2439 


1050 


Brass (average) 


1500-1700 


523.2 


.3027 


30000-45000 


Copper 


1930 


552. 


.3195 


30000-40000 


Gold (pure) 


2100 


1200.9 


.6949 


20380 


Iron, cast 


1900-2200 


450. 


.2604 


20000-35000 


Iron, wrought 


2700-2830 


480. 


.2779 


35000-60000 


Lead 


618 


709.7 


.4106 


1000-3000 


Mercury 


39 


846.8 


.4900 




Nickel 


2800 


548.7 


.3175 




Silver (pure) 


1800 


655.1 


.3791 


40000 


Steel 


2370-2685 


489.6 


.2834 


50000-120000 


Tin 


475 


458.3 


.2652 


5000 


Zinc 


780 


436.5 


.2526 


3500 



Note.— The wide variations in the tensile strength are due 
to the different forms and qualities of the metal tested. In 
the case of lead, the lowest strength is for lead cast in a mould, 
the highest for wire drawn after numerous workings of the 
metal. With steel it varies with the percentage of carbon 
used, which is varied according to the grade of steel required. 
Mercury becomes solid at 39 degrees below zero. 



TABLES 



237 





Decimal Parts of an 


Inch. 


1 


1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


.03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


,14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89063 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-82 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys 


of Tin, Lead, 


and Bismuth. 


Tin. 


Lead. Bismuth. 

i 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 


5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




552 


3 


1 




367 











23? 



TABLES 



Melting. Boiling and Freezing Points in 


Degrees 


Fahrenheit of Various Substances. 


Substance. 


Melts at 

Decrees 


Substance. 


Melts at 
Degrees 


Platinum 


3080 


Antimony 


810 


Wrought-Iron 


2830 


Zinc 


780 


Nickel 


8800 


Lead 


618 


Bled 


2600 


Bismuth 


476 


Cast-iron 


'2200 


Tin 


475 


Gold (pure) 


2100 


Cadmium 


442 


Copper 


1930 


Sulphur 


226 


Gun Metal 


1960 


Bees-Wax 


151 


Brass 


1900 


Spermaceti 


142 


Silver (pure) 


1800 


Tallow 


72 


Aluminum 


1140 


Mercury 


39 


Substance. 


Boils at 
Degrees 


Substance. 


Freezes at 
Degrees 


Mercury- 


660 


Olive Oil 


36 


Linseed Oil 


600 


Fresh Water 


32 


Sulphuric Acid 


590 


Vinegar 


28 


Oil of Turpentine 


560 


Sea Water 


27X 


Nitric Acid 


242 


Turpentine 


14 


Sea Water 


213 


Sulphuric Acid 


1 


Fresh Water 


212 







VACUUM SYSTEM OF STEAM HEATING. 

The application of vacuum to steam heating 
ordinarily involves the employment of a vacuum 
pump located at, or as near as possible to the 
lowest point in the return pipe system in which 
a partial vacuum is to be maintained in order to 
assist in steam circulation. "With such a system 
properly designed, which means with the return 
lines graded so that the condensation flows natur- 
ally back to the vacuum pump, and with efficient 
apparatus installed at the proper points, the 
pump can be of relatively small size as it has little 
to do beside partially exhausting the air from the 
piping and radiators so as to establish a lower 
pressure on the return side of the system. This 
removal of air once accomplished, the pump has 
only to handle the condensation and entrained 
air; the steam condensing in the radiation pro- 
duces the necessary vacuum to induce a further 
supply of steam to the heating units. It is only 
when the physical conditions of the building to be 
heated make it necessary to have drainage points 
below the level of the suction inlet of the pump 
that it is required to "lift" the condensation or 
return water, but, since the steam used to actuate 

239 



240 VACUUM SYSTEM 

the pump is afterwards used for heating, with its 
value impaired only a few per cent, the pump be- 
comes a very efficient power unit. 

Introduction and Advantages. — The introduc- 
tion of a vacuum system of steam heating into a 
building involves either the installation of a com- 
plete plant including the vacuum pump in the 
building, or, on the other hand the steam required 
for heating may be obtained from a nearby central 
heating station conducted on the vacuum system 
which is done in a large number of instances. The 
principal advantages to be derived from the in- 
stallation of the vacuum system are : 

(1) The circulation of steam through the pipes, 
radiators and heating coils is quick, positive and 
uniform. 

(2) There is no " water hammer'' in the piping 
of a properly installed vacuum heating system. 
This is due to the continuous relief of air and the 
positive removal of the products of condensation. 

(3) The absence of air valves on the radiators. 

(4) The ability during mild weather, when the 
demands for heating are slight, to distribute a 
relatively small volume throughout the system as 
needed, with a pressure at, or even slightly below 
that of the atmosphere. 

(5) In mills and factories operated by power 
from non-condensing steam engines or steam tur- 
bines, exhaust steam can be used for heating, due 
to the partial elimination of back pressure. This 



VACUUM SYSTEM 241 

either saves directly in fuel consumption or en- 
ables the engine to do more work at the same ex- 
penditure of fuel. Back pressure upon compound 
engines and turbines adds to their steam consump- 
tion approximately 2.5 to 3 per cent per pound of 
back pressure, while with simple reciprocating en- 
gines the increased steam consumption due to back 
pressure is 1.5 to 2.5 per cent under favorable con- 
ditions and often much more, depending upon 
conditions. 

Heating Medium. — The first subject for consid- 
eration in designing a vacuum system of heating 
is the character of the heating medium, whether 
exhaust or live steam, or a combination of both. 

If exhaust steam from engines or auxiliaries is 
to be utilized, as it should be whenever possible, 
proper provision must be made to remove the en- 
trained oil and cylinder condensate. For this pur- 
pose various methods are employed including the 
loop seal. A successful device is shown in Fig- 
ure 104. The apparatus consists of an oil sep- 
arator connected into the supply pipe, and drained 
into a grease trap placed about six feet below the 
separator. 

Pressure-Reducing Valve.— A pressure-reduc- 
ing valve is essential to secure the success of the 
system. Such a valve is designed to automatically 
admit live steam at reduced pressure into the sup- 
ply mains at times when the amount of exhaust 
steam is insufficient. This valve should be espec- 



242 



VACTOI SYSTEM 



ially adapted to vacuum system service, which 
means that the diaphragm should be of ample area 
to secure sensitive operation. In the case of 
boiler pressures above 125 pounds it is the best 




®=2 




Pig. 104. — Typical method of draining Webster Oil Separator through a 
Webster Grease Trap. 



practice to "step down" the pressure through two 
reducing valves rather than to make a full reduc- 
tion with a single valve. By this method more 
accurate regulation is secured. 

Radiation. — Before the supply and return pip- 
ing can be properly sized and arranged, the 
amount of heat loss should be carefully calculated 
for the various rooms and compartments. For 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



243 



this purpose the rules and tables given elsewhere 
in this book will be found entirely reliable and sat- 
isfactory and apply to any heating system. The 
rate of condensation varies not only with the type 
of radiation, but with its location and Ufi 

Ordinary cast-iron loop radiators such as are 
shown on pages 46 to 50 are most frequently used, 
except in factories, large ware rooms, etc., where 




Fig. 105. — Radiator Connections — steam type with bottom connected 
supply valve. Hot water type with top connected Webster Modulation 
Valve. 



cast-iron wall radiators or ordinary pipe coils may 
be better adapted. When the riser connections 
are above the floor line the radiators should be 
placed so as to secure proper grading of supply 
and return run-outs from radiators to risers. This 
may be accomplished as shown in Figure 105. 

Radiator Tappings. — The tables here presented 
are furnished by Warren "Webster & Co. and apply 
to vacuum system only. 



244 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



The Webster modulation valve referred to in 
the table of radiator tappings and also shown at 
the top in Figure 105, is a device especially 
adapted to vacuum heating systems, and will be 
described and illustrated later on. 

Its function is to regulate the supply of steam as 
needed. 

Cast Iron Radiator Tappings. 
Table of Sizes. 



Square feet of direct 




Supply tap- 




radiating surface 




ping with 




condensing normally 


Normal Maxi- 


Webster 




not to exceed % lb. 


mum pounds 


Modul a t i o n 


Pipe size of 


per square- foot per 


of condensa- 


valve at- 


return 


hour. 


tion per hour. 


tached. 


tapping. 


1 to 25 


7 


% in. 


y 2 in. 


26 to 50 


13 


% in. 


% in. 


51 to 100 


25 


% in. 


V 2 in. 


101 to 175 


44 


% in. to 1 in. 


y 2 in. 


176 and over 


75 


1 in. 


% in. 



Pipe Coil Tappings. 
Table of Sizes. 



Square feet of direct 








radiating surface 








condensing normally 


Normal maxi- 






not to exceed % lb. 


mum pounds 


Pipe size of 


Pipe size of 


per square foot per 


of condensa- 


supply 


return 


hour. 


tion per hour. 


tapping. 


tapping. 


42 


13 


% in. 


y 2 in. 


84 


25 


1 in. 


% in. 


146 


44 


1% in. 


y 2 in. 


250 


75 


1% in. 


% in. 


528 


158 


2 in. 


% in. 


924 


277 


2% in. 


1 in. 



VACUUM SYSTEM 245 

When the radiators are located so that a higher 
condensation rate will be secured, the sizes of the 
tappings should be based upon the condensation 
rate and not upon the size of the radiator. 

vDirect-indirect radiators will condense at least 
33 per cent more than direct radiators. The con- 
densation rate of wall radiators is approximately 
0.3 lb. per square foot of radiating surface. 




Fig. 106. — When the "harp" coil Fig. 107. — Proper method of 

has but a few pipes, a simple sup- making supply connections to 
ply connection, as shown, should "harp" coil of large size to insure 
be made. supply of steam to each pipe in the 

coil. 

Run-Outs. — When horizontal supply run-outs 
above floor level from risers to radiators are more 
than four feet in length, they should be at least 
one size larger than the radiator supply trappings 
given in the tables. In buildings where it is neces- 
sary to lay supply run-outs for some distance, 
practically level under finished floors, these run- 
outs must be of such size that the velocity of steam 



246 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



in the direction opposite to the flow of condensa- 
tion will not prevent the latter from flowing back 
to the main. It is good practice to make the re- 
turn run-outs from radiators to risers not smaller 
than %-inch, even when the radiator return tap- 
ping is %-inch, as the larger pipe is not so liable 
to become distorted, sagged or clogged. 

Pipe Coil Connections. — Figures 106 and 107 
show proper methods of making supply connec- 
tions to harp coils. Figure 108 shows the supply 
connection to a manifold coil. 




Fig. 108.— Supply connections to manifold coil. 

Arrangement of Supply Piping. — There are two 
general methods in use, the up-feed and down- 
feed systems. The most common arrangement is 
the up-feed system of risers, locating the supply 
mains in the basement. 

Where conditions require that the main be run 
centrally with lateral branches of considerable 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



247 



length it is customary to drip these branches at 
the base of each riser. The removal of condensa- 
tion at these points is accomplished either 
through individual traps discharging into the 
vacuum return line as shown in Figures 109 and 



Supply ( 
Wiser * 

^Supply 
Main 




Dirt 
Pocket 



ft 




V 



t 

Vacuum 
Return 
a Main 



SVLPHON 
TRAP 



Fig. 109. — Method of dripping supply risers through Webster Sylphon 
Trap into vacuum return line. 

109% or by combining these drips into a separate 
drip line from which the condensation is dis- 
charged into the vacuum return line through a 
heavy duty water line trap as shown in Fig- 
ure 110. 



248 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



Dawn-Feed System. — It is frequently better en- 
gineering practice to use the down-feed system, 
especially in high buildings when the main exhaust 
pipe leads to the roof. This pipe may be used as 
the main supply riser, and in such case the back 
pressure valve is located at or near the top of the 
main riser, below which a branch is taken off to 
feed a system of distributing mains to supply the 
down-feed risers as shown in Figure 111. 




DIRTSTRAINERL 

DRIP TRAP 

Fig. 109a. — Webster Dirt Strainer and Trap. 

These risers may be dripped through individual 
traps, or the drips may be combined into a sepa- 
rate drip line and discharged through a heavy duty 
trap into the vacuum return line. 

Vacuum Return Lines. — The location and ar- 
rangement of return piping is the same whether 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



249 



the up-feed or down-feed system of supply is used. 
There should always be a slight downward pitch 
in the direction of the flow of condensation. 

The size of vacuum return piping is affected by 
the amount of vapor to be handled. 

In gravity heating systems the returns are 
filled with steam, while in vacuum systems with 
efficient traps they are not so filled. 

Assuming the supply piping to be correctly pro- 
portioned, a safely approximate rule is to make 

Main 

-Up-feed 

Supply 

Riser 



DIRT HEAVY DUTY 
STRAINER /TRAP 



at 




Fig. 110. — Dripping the Main Up-Feed Supply Riser. 

the diameter of the horizontal return line not less 
than one-half the diameter of the corresponding 
supply line for supply lines -of 4-inch and under, 
while for larger supplies the proportion may be 
reduced until with a 12-inch supply line for ex- 
ample, a 4-inch return (1/3 supply) would be 
ample. In no case should, a horizontal return pipe 
less than %-inch in size be used for more than 



250 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



one radiator. "Lifts" in return lines should be 
avoided when it is possible to arrange for gravity 
flow to the vacuum pump. When a lift of 6 feet or 
over cannot be avoided it should be divided into 
"steps" rather than make the total lift in one 
rise. 



'*tr- 



a, .*, 



a. 



! 



m, 



»i 



ui tki a; aJ 



Fig. 111. — The Down-Feed System of Piping, 



Exhausting Apparatus. — The highest authori- 
ties recommend the installation of two vacuum 
pumps, each of ample capacity for the entire 
plant, so that either pump may be cleaned and 
repaired while the other is in operation. 

Modulation Valve. — Mention has already been 
made of this valve, a sectional view of which m 



VACUUM SYSTEM 



251 




Fig, 112. — Webster Type N Modulation Valve, sectional view. 




Fig. 113. — Webster Water-Seal Trap. 



252 VACUUM SYSTEM 

shown in Fig. 112. Its proper location in the steam 
supply leading to a radiator is shown in Fig. 105. 
In Figure 114 is shown a sectional view of the 
Webster sylphon trap wilich operates on the well- 
known thermostatic principle, using a sylphon 
bellows constructed of seamless brass folds the 
contraction or expansion of which serves to open 
or close the valve shown at the bottom. 




Fig. 114. — Webster Sylphon Trap. 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Air valves 57 

Altitude gauge 121 

Boiler capacity 21 

Blow torch 165 

Casings 17-81 

Check valves 112 

Chimney flues 30-130 

Cleaning gas fixtures 171 

Cold air 144 

Connecting a meter 160 

Damper regulator 26 

Direct-indirect radiation 43-96 

Direct radiation 42-95 

Double main system 89 

Estimating 74-129 

Expansion tank 114 

Expansion of wrought iron, steam and water pipes ^ . . . . 150 

Fire pot 17-82 

Fire pots 20-85 

Fittings 151-160 

Frost in pipes 159 

Fuel combustion 31-131 

Furnaces 134 

Furnace heating 133 

Gas burners 174 

Gas fitting 157 

Gas fitting in work shops * 187 

Gas proving pump 171 

Gas stoves and flues 183 

Gas supply pipe 158 

General instructions 139 

Good workmanship 145 

Grate 17-82 

Grates, simplicity of 18-82 

253 



254 INDEX 

PAGE 

Heat 9 

Heater capacity 86 

Heating surface 39-92 

Heating systems 7 

Hot air pipes < 143 

Hot water heating 77 

Hot water heating plant 126 

Hot water mains 92 

Indirect radiation 42-95 

Location of the furnace 142 

Mantel lamps 167 

Medical aid 220 

One pipe system 33 

One pipe system with separate return 34 

One pipe circuit steam heating system 37 

One pipe overhead system 35 

Openings in foundation 145 

Overhead steam heating system 38 

Partition 143 

Pipe bends 152 

Pipe machines 154 

Pipe systems 33-88 

Pressure gauges 28 

Proper size of chimney 142 

Proper size of furnace 141 

Quadruple main water heating system 89 

Radiation 42-95 

Radiators 44-97 

Radiator connections 56-93-108 

Radiator valves 58-108 

Reading a meter 161 

Rectangular sectional boilers 19 

Rectangular sectional heaters 83 

Relative advantages of steam and hot water heating 7 

Round steam boilers 14 

Round water heaters 78 

Safety valves 23 

Simplicity of the grates 18-82 

Single pipe overhead system 90 

Smoke pipes 29 

Specifications and contract for a hot water heating plant 127 



INDEX 255 

PAGE 

Specifications and contract for a steam heating plant 75 

Starting a hot water heating plant , . . 123 

Starting a steam heating plant , , 66 

Steam boilers 13 

Steam heating n 

Steam heating plant ] 69 

Steam mains 41 

Steam and gas fitting 150 

Street supply main 158 

Tables 225-238 

Thermometers 87 

Tools 154 

Two-pipe system ♦ ) . , 37 

Unsteady water line in boiler 63 

Useful information 192 

Useful kinks 203 

Vacuum system of steam heating 239 

Ventilation 8 

Water column 26 

Water gauge , 120 

Webster system 242 

Wrought iron pipe 150 



INDEX TO TABLES 

Approximate radiating surface to cubic capacities to be heated 123 

Approximate velocity of air in flues of various heights 148 

Areas of chimneys 233 

Areas of circles 234 

Boiling points of variou i fluids 197 

Capacity of expansion tanks 121 

Capacity of furnaces to maintain an inside temperature of 70 

degrees with an outside temperature of degrees 149 

Circumferences of circles 235 

Decimal parts of an inch 237 

Dimensions of chimney flues for given amounts of direct steam 

radiation 31 

Dimensions and heating capacities of furnaces 145 

Lap welded steel, or charcoal iron boiler tubes 225 



256 INDEX TO TABLES 

PAGE 

Loss of heat by transmission with a difference of 70 degrees 

Fahr. between the indoor and outdoor temperatures 146 

Loss in pressure due to friction in pipes 230 

Melting, boiling and freezing points of various substances. . . 238 
Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth 237 

Pipe tap for one- and two -pipe steam radiator connections ... 57 

Pipe tapping for hot water radiators 93 

Pressure of water for each foot in height 196 

Proper sizes of furnace pipes to heat rooms of various dimen- 
sions 147 

Proper sizes of hot water mains 93 

Proper sizes of one- and two-pipe steam mains 41 

Properties of metals 236 

Properties of saturated steam 232 

Eeduction of chimney draft by long flues 233 

Square feet of heating surface in : 

Four-column steam or hot water radiators 55 

Three-column steam or hot water radiators 54 

Two-column steam or hot water radiators 53 

Square feet of heating surface in: 

Four-column water radiators 107 

Three-column water radiators 106 

Two-column water radiators 105 

Square feet of surface in one lineal foot of pipe of various 

dimensions 197 

Temperature of steam at varying pressures in degrees Fahr. . . 73 
Tensile strength of bolts 231 

Velocity of flow of water 230 

Wind velocities 146 

Wrought iron and steel steam, gas and water pipe — dimen- 
sions of 226-227 

Wrought iron and steel extra strong pipe — dimensions of ... . 228 
Wrought iron and steel double extra strong pipe — dimen- 
sions of 229 









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